LB 1525 
.L65 
Copy 1 








Class _UB...\. SJtS- 

Book sU.ioS . 

Copyright N° . 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
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Reading 

for 

Training Classes 



ROSE M. LIBBY 

Teacher of Training Class, Clayton, N. Y 




SYRACUSE, N. Y. 

C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 

Copyright, 1906, by C. W. Kardeen 



UBMRY of CONGRESS 

Twe C»le» Rectf*! 

JAN 2 190? 

CwYrieM Entry 

CLASS A X»« Ho, I 

I oow B - 1 



V 






£/ 
6 



V 



J 



PREFACE 

This work is intended for the use of ad- 
vanced pupils in reading, teachers, teachers 
training classes, and those preparing for the 
New York regents examinations 

Much of the material has been taken from 
notes prepared for use in the Clayton New 
York training class. Many valuable sug- 
gestions and criticisms have been offered by 
Mr. Ernest Robinson, principal of the Clay- 
ton High School. 

While training class pupils need study 
only those portions of the work pertaining 
to the outline on pp. 12-15, a more compre- 
hensive knowledge of the subject may be 
obtained by studying the contents of the en- 
tire book. 



CONTENTS 



b. Slur 



m 



2 i 
^ i 
o 



fl / 



A. Mental elements 16 

fl. Definition 16 

2. Purpose 16 

( Absolute 17 

a. Emphasis 16 <j 3. Kinds ■< Antithetic 17 

( Cumulative 18 

How indicated 18 

How taught 20 

Definition 22 

Uses of 22 

Definition 23 

( 1. Natural 23 

Kinds ] 2. High 24 

( 3. Low 25 

How taught 25 

fl. Definition 27 

Quantity^ 2 Divi 

' Rate 27 ( Gentle 

Definition 29 

U. Natural 29 

High 29 

( 3. Low 29 

How taught 30 

( Definition 30 

Stress 30 \ 

I How taught 30 

1. Definition 32 



4. 
15. 
22-4- 

fl- 
23 
Pitch ^ 2. 

13. 



fl. 



Volume 



Moderate 
Loud.. 27 



29 
Force < 



2. Kinds 



32 
Quality 

or 
Tone 34 



13. 





fl. Pure 


. 34 




2. Orotund . 


. 35 




3. Aspirated . 


. 36 


inds34 ■{ 


4 Guttural . 


. 36 




5. Pectoral . . 


. 37 




6. Falsetto... 


. 37 




7. Tremulous 


. 37 


low taui 


•ht 


. 38 



CONTENTS 111 



f 1. Definition 39 

f 39 (Rising 39 

39 1. Simple < 

( Falling 39 

39 39 

2. Kinds ■{ 2. Compound ( Rising circumflex 40 
or -j Falling circum- 

Circumflex ( flex 40 

L 3. Monotone 40 

3. How indicated 41 

4. Correct use of (rules) 41 

5. Series 41 

k 6. How taught 41 

48 ( 1. Definition 48 

e. Cadence \ 2. Faults 49 

( 3. How taught 49 

/. Phrasing or grouping 50 

52 . ( 1. Definition 52 

Pauses \ 52 ( Rhetorical — purpose of . 52 
Kinds -j 

( Grammatical — purpose of 52 

r. Expression — 56 



IV 



READING IK TRAINING CLASSES 



B. Physical elements 59 



r l. Definition 



66 



(1. Articulation^ 2. Includes -( 



59 

' Elementary 
sounds . . 59 

Syllabication 



•2/ 

> 



2. Enunciation ^ 



Union of 
sounds 
and syllables 
[_ into words 
[3. Difficulties 67 

fl. Definition 70 

' Suppresion 
of syllables 71 

Omission 

of sounds 71 



2. Includes 



78 
Accent 



Blending the 
termination 
of one sylla- 
ble with the 
beginning of 
another. . . 71 

Definition ~ 78 

Purpose 78 

Kinds -S Primai T ™ 

Klnas 1 Secondary 78 

b. Managment of breath 80 

c. Emphasis, force, pitch, rate, inflection, cadence, 

— best studied from the mental side, 16-48. 

d- Facial expression „ 83 

e. Gesture 83 

/. Posture 83 



CONTENTS V 

C. Material 84 

1 Extensive reading 84 

Quantity 84 

Characteristics of good reading 

books 87 

Questions 90 

Quality 91 

In early grades 92 

Thefairytale 93 

Myths 95 

Books for first 4 years 96 

for 5th and 6th grades 98 

for 7th and 8th grades 100 

List of books 102 

Questions 107 

Variety 107 

A daptation 108 

Reading correlated 109 

Questions on selections 1 10 

Primaky Reading 112 

Methods 112 

Synthetic and analytic 113 

Word method 114 

Sentence method 116 

Phonic method 118 

Phonetic method 120 



VI READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

Word building method 121 

Object method . .122 

Group method 122 

Alphabetic method 123 

Drawing method 124 

Ward or Rational method 124 

Ear training.... 130 

Combined method 130 

General suggestions 133 

Defects 135 

Results of first year' s work 135 

Intermediate Reading 136 

Word study 137 

Thought getting and giving 139 

Correcting errors 139 

Expression 140 

Faults 140 

Suggestions for recitations 141 

Advanced Reading 143 

Suggestions for recitation 144 

Concert reading 144 

Silent reading -"145 

Position - . 147 

Questions for review ..147 

Word Study 149 

Examples of word analysis 151 



CONTENTS Vll 

Definition of words 154 

Exercise in synonyms 156 

Spelling 158 



Place in school work 1 



Difficult 159 

The spelling-book, advantages 160 

Disadvantages 161 

Best ways of teaching... 162 

Suggestions for recitation 162 

Oral spelling 163 

Written spelling 164 

General suggestions 165 

In oral spelling 168 

In written spelling 170 

Dictation 173 

Enles 174 

Penmanship 175 

Vertical 176 

Position of body 177 

Holding of the pen 178 

Movements .- 179 

Materia] 180 



Vlll READING IK TRAINING CLASSES 

Copy books 180 

Writing charts 181 

Copies 181 

Classification of letters 182 

Exercises 182 

Time 185 

Writing in the first grade 186 

Dictation 186 

Criticisms 187 



Reading in Training Classes 

READING is getting thought from the 
written or printed page by interpret- 
ing the characters in which it is expressed. 
The two aims in teaching reading are: 
1. To make the reader recognize in- 
stantly and with mechanical precision, 
word and letter forms and values; 

2. to make him interested in the con- 
tents of literature. The first involves the 
mechanical part of reading, a distinct 
articulation, accurate pronounciation and 
instant interpretation of words and charac- 
ters. The second involves the moral 
development of the pupil and gives him an 
insight into the true, the good and the 
beautiful as found in the best literature. 
While in primary reading both aims are 
to be kept in view, the chief aim is instant 
recognition of word and letter forms. 

The pupil should not, however, be requir- 
ed 



10 READING IK TRAILING CLASSES 

ed to read combinations of words having 
no sense. From the very beginning the 
sentences used should be of interest to the 
child, and as far as possible should be ar- 
ranged in story form and should express 
thoughts of interest to them. 

The division between primary and 
advanced reading is marked by the point 
where drill in the mechanical recognition 
of words ceases and the whole attention is 
given to the thought. It is difficult to tell 
just where one ends and the other begins. 
There is no sudden change between the 
two. 

The ultimate end in reading can not be 
attained unless there has been thorough 
drill in the mechanics of reading in the 
early years of school ; for no person can 
gain the complete thought and inspiration 
from written language if his attention be 
directed to the study of words and charac- 
ters. 

We thus see the importance of the 
mechanical part of reading in the early 
years of school. 

Raub says in " Methods of Teaching " 



THEEE OBJECTS IN TEACHING READING 11 

that there are three objects in teaching 
reading to a child; viz; 

1. To enable him to gain information. 

2. To enable him to impart information. 

3. To give pleasure to himself and others. 

Oral reading is the audible interpreta- 
tion of the author's thought and feeling 
given in the author's own language. 

There are few good oral readers. Try to 
read an ordinary newspaper article and you 
will be surprised to find the number of 
words you mispronounce, and even your 
own ear will detect grave errors in emphasis 
and inflection. 

The following is a combination of the 
outline prepared by the Education De- 
partment for the lue in teachers train- 
ing classes and those preparing for 
uniform examinations. 



12 



READING IK TRAINING CIASSES 



A. Mental elements 

fl. Definition 



a. Emphasis 



2. Purpose 

( Absolute 
■{ 3. Kinds ■< Antithetic 
( Cumulative 

4. How indicated 

5. How taught 



MENTAL ELEMENTS 



13 









( 


1 


Definition 




b. 


Slur 


( 2. Uses of 








' o / 


fl. Definition 




+3 




( 1. Natural 


d 


"3 


1. 


Pitch ■{ 2. Kinds \ 2. High 
( 3. Low 


.2 






*+3 

(3 


A 




[_ 3. How taught 


"3 - 


TH 






O 


d 




fl. Definition 
Quantity^ 2 Divi- \ Volume \ ]^f' ate 
sions (Rate (Gentle 


S 


o 

"qq 


2. 


«i 


*o 






*-CQ* 






1. Definition 

( 1. Natural 

2. Kinds ] 2. High 

( 3. Low 














3. 


Force - 










3. How taught 










( Definition 










4. Stress -J 










( How taught 










'1. Definition 












1. Pure 












2. Orotund 






4. 


Quality 




3. Aspirated 








or 


2. Kinds < 


4 Guttural 








Tone 




5. Pectoral 

6. Falsetto 






V 






7. Tremulous 










^ 3. How tau^ 


rht 



14 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 



1. Definition 



f ( Rising 

1. Simple •< 

( Falling 



2. Kinds *{ 2. Compound ( Rising circumflex 
or 1 

Circumflex ( Falling circumflex 



3. Monotone 

3. How indicated 

4. Correct use of (rules) 
[_ 5. How taught 

1. Definition 



e. Cadence 

2. How taught 

/. Phrasing or grouping 

1, Definition 
Pauses ( Rhetorical — purpose of 

2. Kinds -j 
( Grammatical — purpose of 

g. Expression 



PHYSICAL ELEMENTS 



15 



B. Physical elements 

(1. Definition 



/ 





§ 






' Elementary 


[."£ 




sounds 


: '-B 










Syllabication 






f\. Articulation- 


2. Includes <| 




T-i 






Union of 


c 








sounds 










and syllables 


"Sa 








into words 


!< 






3. Difficulties" 






'1. Definition 


p 








r Suppresion 


£ 


zn 






of syllables 


* 


3 
\j_ ( 






Omission 
of sounds 




s 


2. Enunciation* 


2. Includes - 


Blending the 
termination 




C3 






of one sylla- 
ble with the 










beginning of 


\ 






, another 




f Definition 




3 Apppnt J Pur POse 
3. Accent ^ , Pri 

< ^ Kinds ^ Secondary 


b. Managment of breath 


c. Emphasis, force, pitch, rate, inflection, cadence, 


— best studied from the mental side 


cl Facial expression 


e. Gesture 


/• - 


POS 


ture 







16 BEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

The Mental Elements 

The mental elements, those which pertain 
bo the mind, include the several divisions 
found in the outline. 

By reading with correct expression we 
are enabled to interpret properly the 
author's thought and, therefore, under- 
stand and feel what we read. In order 
that we may do this we must give attention, 
consciously or unconsciously, to the mental 
elements: emphasis, slur, modulation, 
inflection, cadence, pauses, and the various 
subdivisions of these, as pitch, rate, force, 
etc. 

(a) Emphasis 

Emphasis is the manner of attracting 
attention to one or more words in a 
sentence. 

Purpose or use. — By the proper use of 
emphasis we give interest and enthusiasm 
to the reading and bring out clearly the 
author's thoughts and feelings. 

In order that we may know the emphatic 
word or words we must have the power to 
analyze. 



EMPHASIS 1? 

Many different meanings may be conveyed 
by as simple a sentence as this; John struck 
the ball. Emphasize ball and we contrast 
it with something else he may have struck, 
as cat or dog. Emphasize John and we 
mean that John and no other person struck 
the ball. Emphasize struck and we mean 
that what he did to the ball was to strike 
it. It is a good exercise to have the child 
take some simple sentences, emphasize 
different words and explain the meaning in 
each case. It will aid him in the control 
and use of his voice and show the value of 
emphasis. 

Kinds of emphasis. — Absolute emphasis is 
that 'emphasis applied to the prominent 
ideas and thus brings out the meaning, as, 

" Speak little and well, if you wish to be 
considered as possessing merit." 

" Boisterous in speech, in action prompt 
and bold." 

Antithetic emphasis is that emphasis 
used upon words and phrases that contrast, 
or point out a difference; as, 

" The good man is honored, as the evil 
man is despised." 



18 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

"It is my living sentiment, and by the 
grace of God, it shall be my dying senti- 
ment." 

" Independence now and independence 
forever. ' 7 

Cumulative emphasis is that gradual 
increase of emphasis applied to a succession 
of important words or phrases; as, 

" Strike — till the last armed foe expires; 

Strike — for your altars and your fires; 

STRIKE— for the green graces of your 
sires; God — and your native land !" 

What words receive emphasis? 

1. The important words and those that 
introduce new ideas. 

2. Sometimes words which modify the 
subject or predicate. 

3. Sometimes the modifiers of a modi- 
fied word. 

A word or phrase may be made emphatic : 
1. By the voice being raised or made 
stronger (force) ; as, 

" Go, ring the bells, and fire the guns, 
And fling the starry banners out; 
Shout 'freedom' till your lisping ones 
Give back their cradle shout. " 



EMPHASIS 19 

" He buys, he sells— he steals, he 
KILLS for gold." 

2. By a sudden change of voice; as, 

" I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris, and 
he; 

I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped 
all three: 

" Good speed!" cried the watch, as the 
gate-bolts undrew; 

" Speed!" echoed the wall to us gal- 
loping through; 

Behind shut the postern, the lights sank 
to rest, 

And into the midnight we galloped abreast." 

3. By lowering or softening voice; as, 
" It was a bitter, bitter night! the child 

is frozen dead." 

4. By inflection; as, 

" Be not like dumb driven cattle: 
Be a hero in the strife. 

5. By pause; as, 

" And now hath every city 
Sent up her tale of men: 
The foot are fourscore thousand, 
The horse are thousands ten." 

Horatius — (Macaulay ) 



20 BEADING IN" TKAINING CLASSES 

6. By gesture; as, 
" It is she! Gracious God! Is she dying? 

Or dead, sirs? Say, tell if you can? 
Unhand me ! Who murdered my poor wife?" 
And a voice answered, " Thou art the man." 

Hand extended in a position of pointing 
on "Thou art the man." 

?. By speaking it in a very low key; as, 
"But soft! behold! lo, there it comes again! 
Breathe it not aloud] the wild wind must 

not hear it." 

8. By pronouncing the word or phrases 
slowly; as, 

" He was the most cow-ard-ly man I 
ever knew." 

How may emphasis be taught 

Be sure that the child understands and 
feels what he reads. Ask pupil questions 
to bring out the meaning; e.g. take the 
sentence, Mary won the prize. Suppose we 
wish Mary emphasized, ask, Who won the 
prize? The child will read the sentence 
emphasizing the proper word. If we wish 
prize emphasized, ask, " What did Mary 



EMPHASIS 21 

The child will read the sentence em- 
phasizing prize. 

In but few cases is it advisable for the 
teacher to read and require the pupils to 
imitate. If a child understands and feels 
what he reads and is not self conscious, 
there will be little difficulty with emphasis 
or any of the mental elements. If a child 
can read as he talks, provided he talks 
correctly, it is all that we can hope to secure 
in ordinary school work. If he does not 
do this, it is often of advantage to have 
him close his book and tell the sentence in 
the exact words. 

Do not emphasize too many words, as 
this makes the reading choppy and not 
pleasing to a listener. 

Exercise : 

Mark the emphatic wovds in the follow- 
ing selection: 
" You hear that boy laughing? — you think 

he's all fun; 
But the angels laugh, too, at the good he 

has done; 
The children laugh loud as they troop to 

his call, 



22 BEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

And the poor man that knows him laughs 
loudest of all!" 

(6) Slur 

Slur is the smooth, even, softened move- 
ment of the voice upon the less important 
parts of a sentence. 

When a part of a sentence is slurred it 
is usually read in a lower tone with faster 
rate and with little variation of inflection. 

As stated under emphasis the reader must 
be able to analyze rapidly in order to deter- 
mine the important parts. 

Slur is used in reading parenthetical 
expressions, explanatory words or phrases, 
repetitions, contrasted ideas, and some qual- 
ifying clauses and phrases. 

Example: 

(The words slurred are italicized.) 

1. "A young officer (in what army no 
matter) had so far forgotten himself, as to 
strike a private soldier." 

(c) Modulation 

Modulation is a changing of the^pitch 
note to a higher or lower degree of ele- 
vation. 



SLUR, MODULATION 23 

It is by this act of varying the voice that 
we better express our emotions, sentiments, 
and thoughts. 

Its divisions are pitch, quantity, force, 
and quality. 

1. Pitch 

Pitch is the degree of elevation or de- 
pression of the voice in reading or speaking. 

When the pitch used is adapted to the 
various shades of thought and feeling, the 
reading becomes pleasant to a listener, 
and the reader's good taste is shown. No 
voice is musical when continued in one 
unchanging tone (monotone). 

The key of the voice is the natural pitch, 
or that used in ordinary conversation. 

The elevation or depression of the voice 
is reckoned from the key. Few if any 
two people have the same key. Usually the 
pitch of men's voices is an octave lower 
than that of women's. 

2. Kinds of Pitch 

1. The natural pitch is that used in 
ordinary conversation, in narrations and 
unemotional reading. 



24 BEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

2. The high pitch is that which is above 
the key of the voice. This is used to 
express light, joyful sentiments, and some- 
times those which are subdued, sorrowful 
or pathetic. It is also used to express fear, 
hate, anger, a command, and to com- 
municate the thoughts of another. This 
is the pitch used in calling. 

Example : 

1. " Go ring the bells, and fire the guns, 
And fling the starry banners out; 
Shout ' Freedom!' till your lisping 

ones 
Give back their cradle shout." 

2. Breathes there a man with soul so 

dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 
' This is my own my native land!' 
Whose heart hath ne'er within him 

burned 
As home his footsteps he hath 

turned, 
From wanderi ug on a foreign strand? 
If such there breathe, go, mark him 

well 
For him no minstrel's raptures 

swell." —(Scott) 



PITCH 25 

3. Low pitch is that which is below 
the key of the voice. It is usually a 
musical fifth below the high pitch. It is 
used when we wish to express calm sorrow 
or sad emotion of any kind; or to express 
deep joy, awe, reverence, or sublimity. 

Example: 

" The year 
Has gone, and, with it, many a glorious 

throng 

Of happy dreams. Its mark is on each 

brow, 
Its shadow in each heart." 

How Taught 

1. See that the child understands what 
he reads, and try to arouse his proper 
f?elings. 

2. Drill upon the musical^scale. 

3. Pupils may repeat together certain 
of the elementary sounds on a pitch indi- 
cated by the teacher, or take a sound and 
run the musical scale. 

4. Use short sentences in a manner sim- 
ilar to the last. 

5. The child's ear may be at fault; he 
will then be unable to tell when he has 



26 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

the correct pitch. In such a case ear 
training is necessary, and he should at first 
be drilled upon thirds and fifths of the 
musical scale. 

Chief Errors in Pitch 

1. Many pupils when reading or speak- 
ing before an audience pitch their voices 
on too high a key, with the idea that the 
higher the key the more distinctly they 
will be heard. This fault may be cor- 
rected by having pupils recite to one or two 
persons so that they may speak in natural 
tones. 

Pieces should be chosen that require the 
moderate pitch for the early work of the 
child. 

2. Often pupils seem to confuse pitch 
and force. 

These are entirely independent of each 
other; one can read softly in a high pitch 
as well as in a low. The teacher can show 
the distinction by reading to the pupils and 
exaggerating the difference. 

3. Some pupils do not make the pitch 
suitable for the feelings to be expressed. 



QUANTITY 37 

Here again aim to have the pupil feel what 
he reads and if possible forget himself and 
his surroundings. 

2. Quantity 

Quantity, as we will consider it, has re. 
ference to the volume of the voice and the 
rate of movement. It is, however, a gen- 
eral term and includes emphasis, force, 
stress and slur. 

By volume is meant the fullness of the 
voice. 

Rate is the degree of rapidity in reading 
or speaking. 

Kinds of Rate 

1. Moderate rate is that used in all 
ordinary discourse, conversation, narra- 
tion, description, and also to express cheer- 
fulness and very gentle emotions. 

2. Rapid rate is used to express such 
emotions as delight, mirth, terror, violent 
anger, and anxiety, as, 

" And there was mounting in hot haste, 

the steed, 
The mustering squadron, and the clattering 

car 



28 BEADING IK TBAIN1NG CLASSES 

Went pouring forward with impetuous 
speed, 

And swiftly forming in the ranks of war. ' ' 

3. Slow rate is need to express grandeur, 
vastness, horror, adoration, pathos, con- 
sternation; as, 

"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day; 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea; 
The plowman homeward plods his weary 

way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to 

me." 

By reading a phrase or paragraph slowly 
opportunity is given for arousing the imag- 
ination and feelings. Rate may be retarded 
by pronouncing words slowly or by pauses. 

How Taught 

It is not usually necessary to give much 
drill in rate. If a child reads too rapidly it 
is because he is not interested in the thought ; 
if too slowly it is because he does not recog- 
nize the words instantly, or he is naturally 
slow, or he does not understand what he 
reads. 

Give selections that require slow or rapid 



FORCE 29 

rate as the case may be; ask questions to 
bring out the proper understanding of the 
thought and make the pupil interested in it. 
See that the pupil makes sufficient prepar- 
ation upon each lesson; naturally slow- 
readers should be drilled frequently upon 
selections requiring rapid rate. 

3. Force 

Force is the degree of loudness or softness 
of the voice used on the the same key, when 
reading or speaking. 

1. Moderate force is used in ordinary 
conversation, narration, and description, or 
anything not particularly animated. 

Example: 
"There is no bird that can sing like a 
hymn. ' ' 

2. Loud voice is used in selections of 
joyous and animated nature; also to express 
emotions of sorrow, grief, respect, dignity, 
suppressed passions, veneration. This force 
is used in calling. 

Example : 

"Passion is of no service, you impudent, 
insolent, overbearing, reprobate." 

3. Gentle force is used to express senti- 



30 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

ments of gentle, tender, subdued and sol- 
emn nature; also caution, fear and secrecy. 

Example : 
"Give me three grains of corn, mother, 
Only three grains of corn; 
It will keep the little life I have 
Till the coming of the morn. ' ' 

How Taught 

1. Drill pupils upon sounds and words 
until they are able to distinguish and give 
the kinds of force. 

2. Use sentences requiring various degrees 
of force. 

3. Question to bring out the thought and 
feeling of every selection, thus arousing the 
proper mental condition. 

4. Have the child stand some distance 
from the pupils and read to them. Note — 
We want a clear, easy, natural tone. If we 
tell a child to read louder we get an unnat- 
ural force. 

Stress is the application of force to the 
accented syllable. 

1. Radical stress — when the greatest force 



FORCE 31 

is at the beginning of the syllable or em- 
phatic portion. 

This stress marks all forms of energetic 
and animated expression. It often startles, 
thrills, and sways great audiences. Lack 
of this stress often produces a drawling 
effect, Too frequent use of this makes one 
appear dogmatic. It is the objective stress. 

Example; 

"Stop, don't move from that place." 

2. Final stress— when the greater force is 
at the end of the syllable or emphatic portion. 

This stress marks impassioned utterance. 
It expresses contempt, astonishment, hor- 
ror, scorn, impatience, earnest purpose, and 
determination. Without this stress or when 
used in a weak form, oratory would lose 
much of its energy and a mere whine would 
be the result. It is indispensable in dram- 
atic poetry. 

Example; 
"Come backl come backl he cried in grief." 

Medium stress— when the greater force is 
at the middle of the syllable. This is a 
combination of the radical and final, and is 
used to express dignity, reverence, patriot- 



32 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

ism, affection, and grandeur. This gives 
beauty to the delivery. 
Example: 

"My country, 'tis of thee; 
Sweet land of liberty. ' ' 

How Taught 

No mechanical drill is necessary, for if 
pupils properly understand the selections 
the correct stress is usually given. In case, 
however, that mechanical drill is needed the 
following method is suggested. 

1. Take simple elementary sounds and 
drill upon these and pupils can readily dis- 
tinguish the kinds of stress and prod nee 
them. 

Take words and proceed in a similar 
manner. 

3. Afterwards use sentences containing 
these words. 

4. Quality 

1 'Quality manifests emotional states. ' ' 
Quality has been defined as "that subtle 
element of the voice by which is expressed 
at one time tenderness, at another harshness, 



QUALITY 33 

at another awe, and so on through the whole 
gamut [scale] of feelings. " Another defines 
-quality as the kind of tone used in reading 
and speaking. 

Each person has an individuality of voice, 
but the quality of his tone can be changed 
almost as he wishes, because the shape of 
the pharynx can be modified by the action 
•of the tongue. 

Defects of voice 

1. Those caused from diseases, as catarrh, 
•enlarged tonsils, or from accident, as broken 
nose. 

2. Those coming from birth, as cleft pal- 
ate, peculiar shaped mouth, narrow nasal 
passages. 

3. Those caused by the misuse of the 
voice. 

Many public speakers have destroyed the 
quality of their tones by the improper use of 
their voices. 

The most musical voice will become un- 
pleasant if the tones are produced far back 
in the throat. 

Feeling or emotion has much to do with 



34 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

the quality of the tone. Teachers should 
encourage pupils to express the various 
emotions, should remove all hindrances, and 
should discourage any attempt at ridicule. 
In any school where the idea exists that 
boys and girls appear weak when they read 
with feeling, the teacher should do all in 
her power to break it up. When a pupil 
shows that he feels what he reads we may 
be sure that his moral nature is developing 
and that he can be touched by the true and 
good. 

(c) Tone 

Tone is practically the same as quality. 

It has reference to the kind of sound used 

in reading or speaking. It is defined by 

Webster as sound or the character of sound. 

Kinds of Tone 

The four chief tones in which nearly all 
emotions are expressed are; pure, orotund, 
aspirated, and guttural. To these may be 
added the pectoral, falsetto, and tremulous. 

Pure tone is that of ordinary conversa- 
tion, sometimes called the natural tone. It 
is a smooth, easy, round flowing sound of 



TONE 



35 



moderate pitch, rate and force. It is used 
to express emotions of love, peace, cheerful- 
ness, joy and sometimes sadness. 

Example: 
"There was a festive hall with mirth 

resounding; 
Beauty and wit, and friendliness sur- 
rounding; 
With minstrelsy above, and dancing feet 

rebounding." 

Orotund tone is an enlarged, intensified, 
deepened pure tone, of a rich quality. It is 
the pure tone rounded in the mouth and 
deepened in the chest. 

This tone is not necessarily louder than 
the pure tone; loudness has nothing to do 
with it. It is used to express sublimity, 
grandeur, awe, reverence, diginity and sol- 
emnity. 

Example : 
"Roll on, thou deep and dark- blue ocean — 

roll!" 

This tone may be secured by arousing the 
interest and imagination. Think of the 
vastness of the ocean in the above selection; 
imagine the change in the sky and the 



36 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

strength of the night, the storm, and the 

darkness in the following: 

"The sky is changed! and such a change! 

Night, 
And Storm, and Darkness, ye are wondrous 

strong, 
Yet lonely in our strength, as in the light 
Of a dark eye in woman!" 
Aspirated tone is a breathed or whispered 
utterance. It is produced by mingling the 
breath with the vocal tones and is used to 
express secrecy, fear, terror, rage, hate, 
scorn, and contempt. 

Example : 

"Hark! what's that?" 

' 'I have done the deed. Didst thou not 
hear a noise?" 

Guttural tone is a deep, rough, grating 
throat tone, produced chiefly in the throat. 
It is used to express hate, rage, contempt 
and loathing. 

Example : 
"Back ! ruffians, back ! nor dare to tread 

Too near the body of my dead ; 
Nor touch the living boy. I stand 

Between him and your lawless hand. ' ' 
—The Polish Boy. 



TOKE 37 

Pectoral tone is a low, pure, hollow tone 
(chest tone). It is sometimes caused by 
weak organs or improper care of the abdom- 
inal organs. This tone is used in express- 
ing sorrow and deep feeling. 
Example : 
' ' Softly woo away her breath, 

Gentle death !" 
< ' Let her leave thee with no strife, 
Tender, mournful, murmuring Life ! 
She hath seen her happy day: 
She hath had her bud and blossom: 
Now she pales and fades away, 
Earth, into thy gentle bosom." 
Falsetto tone is high and sharp. It is 
often caused by nervousness, and it expres- 
ses irritability, surprise, pain, mockery and 
sometimes great terror. 
Example : 
k «Bah! that's the third umbrella gone 
since Christmas. What were you to do? 
Why, let him go home in the rain to be sure. 
Do you hear the rain, Mr. Caudle ? I say 
do you hear it ? " 

— Douglas Jerrold. 
Tremulous tone is an oscillating tone pro- 



38 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

duced by vibrating the pitch of the voice. 
It is used to express tenderness, grief, pity. 
It may be caused by old age, and fear some- 
times produces it. 

Example: 
' l love, remain ! It is not yet near day ! 
It was the nightingale, and not the lark, 
That pierced the fearful hollow of thine ear ; 
Nightly she sings in yon pomegranite tree. 
Believe me, love, it was the nightingale. ' ' 
— Romeo and Juliet. — Shakspere. 

How Taught 

Little if any mechanical drill should be 
given in the public school. As previous- 
ly suggested appeal to the imagination, 
arouse the proper feelings, and make the 
surroundings of the school-room such that 
there will be no fear of expressing these feel- 
ings. 

With the older pupils selections might 
be given for study, requiring pupils to tell 
the feelings expressed, and the tone or tones 
in which it should be rendered, but this 
should never be done with the younger pu- 
pils. In case the teacher wishes to give me- 
hanical drill, she may use various elemen - 
tary sounds and repeat to the musical scale. 



INFLECTION 39 

(d) Inflection 

Inflections are bends or slides of the voice 
at the close of syllables or words. 

Kinds 

There are two kinds of inflections, simple 
and compound. 

A simple inflection is a slide of the voice 
in but one direction, either upward or down- 
ward. 

There are two simple inflections ; the ris- 
ing and the falling. 

The rising inflection, marked thus (') is a 
slide of the voice upward ; as, " Are you go- 
ing to school ?' ' 

The falling inflection, marked thus f ) is a 
slide of the voice downward ; as, " It is six 
weeks since school closed. ' ' 

Note — The rising inflection is sometimes 
called the accute accent, and the falling the 
grave accent. 

The compound inflection or circumflex is 
a union of the rising and falling inflection. 

There are two compound or circumflex in- 
flections, the rising circumflex and the fall- 



40 READING IN" TRAINING CLASSES 

ing circumflex, which are named from the 
ending of the slide. 

The rising circumflex, marked thus ( v ) be- 
gins with a downward slide and ends by 
an upward slide ; ' ' Must I stop this, when 
you are doing it?" 

The falling circumflex, marked thus ( A ) is 
an upward slide followed by a downward 
slide ; as, u This is a peculiar specimen that 
I have." 

The monotone is sometimes classed under 
inflection. This is not produced by an in- 
flection, however, but rather by the lack of 
it. The voice continues on the same tone 
throughout the thought. It is not suited 
to the literature of the school, and whenever 
used produces an unpleasant effect upon the 
hearers. It is by the use of inflections that 
monotonous reading is prevented. It is said 
that certain selections that express solem- 
nity, awe, reverence and the like, may pro- 
perly be rendered in the monotone ; but a 
perfect monotone is rarely used. 

Example : 
"Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of Sabaoth. " 



INFLECTION 41 

Rules for Inflection 

1. The rising inflection is used upon incom- 
plete thoughts ; as, 

' ' You may go, btit — 
' ' If thine enemy hunger, give him bread 
to eat." 

2. Exclamations usually require the falling 
inflection ; as, 

1 ' Hark ! Did you hear that ?' ' 

3. The rising inflection is used upon direct 
questions or those that can be answered by 
yes and no ; the answers take the falling ; as, 
' ' Are you going home ?" " Yes. ' ' 

4. Indirect questions, or those that cannot 
be answered by yes and no, usually take the 
rising inflection and the answers the falling ; 
as, ' ' Who gave you that ?" " My father. ' ' 

Note — If the question be repeated it takes 
the rising inflection. 

5. When words or phrases are contrasted, 
one takes the rising inflection and the other 
the falling ; as, 

' ' The girl is industrious, the boy is lazy. ' ' 

6. The rising inflection is used when we do 
not wish to assert strongly or at all ; as, 
' ' There may be other ways of doing this. ' ' 



42 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

7. The rising inflection is used when we 
are uncertain or doubtful ; as, "I think that 
is true." 

8. We use the rising inflection when what 
we have to say is trite, trivial, or repetitions; 
as, ' ' There is no danger. ' ' 

9. The rising inflection is usually required 
in entreaty, concession, politeness and ad- 
monition ; as "Please don't go and leave 
me." 

10. Thoughts that express completeness or 
momentary completeness usually require the 
falling inflection, but when several complete 
thoughts occur in one sentence, the last but 
one generally has the rising inflection ; as, 

' ' The rivers became small brooks ; the 
leaves began to fall from the trees ; the cat- 
tle began to suffer for lack of food ; and the 
seed lay in the ground unsprouted." 

11. The falling inflection is used to express 
determination or decision ; as, "I know it 
is true." 

12. Words or phrases repeated for emphasis 
require the falling inflection ; as, 

"If I was an American, as I am an 
Englishman, while a foreign troop was landed 



INFLECTION 43 

in my country, I never would lay down my 
arms — never, never, NEVER. 

13. Words or phrases in contact or antithe- 
sis require opposite inflections ; as, "I said 
an older, not a better." 

14. The circumflex is used in expressions of 
decision, irony, condition, contrast and sar- 
casm ; as, 

"You ought to be ashamed to do such 
things." 

Series 

A series is a succession of at least three 
particulars. 

There are two classes, simple and com- 
pound, either of which may be a commenc- 
ing or a concluding series. 

In a simple series the members are single 
in word or idea ; as, 

"Henry gave me apples, pears, peaches, 
and grapes." 

In a compound series the members consist 
of several words, or more than one idea ; as 

' ' He received him kindly, washed his 
feet, provided supper, and caused him to sit 
down." 



44 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

A commencing series is one in which the 
sense is incomplete at the end of the series ; 
as, 

' ' Bass, pickerel, pike and trout are caught 
in the Raquette. ' ' 

Rules for the inflection of series 

1. The last member but one of a simple 
commencing series and the last member of a 
simple concluding series take the falling in- 
flection, all others the rising ; as, 

"Dec4r, gentle, patient, noble, Nell was 
dead." 

"Where are the traces of care, suffering 
and faitgue?" 

2. The last member of a compound com- 
mencing series and the last but one of a com- 
pound concluding series requires the rising 
inflection, all others the falling ; as, 

1 ' I saw in that noble person such sound 
principles, such an enlargement of mind, 
such clear and sagacious sense, and such un- 
shaken fortitude as have bound me by an 
inviolable attachment to him from that time 
forward." 

"They journeyed from San Francisco to 



INFLECTION 45 

Chicago, from Chicago to Buffalo, from 
Buffalo to Syracuse, and from Syracuse to 
New York." 

3. A series that contains more than five 
members, is divided into two or more shorter 
series and each division is read according to 
the rule which would apply to it if it stood 
alone ; as, 

" But the fruit of the spirit is love, joy r 
peace, long-suffering, gentleness, || goodness, 
faith, meekness, temperance." 

Note — If a series contains an antithesis, 
apply the rule for antithesis to each mem- 
ber. 1|7_. 

How May Inflection be Taught? 

[ ^The reason for giving wrong inflections 
seems to be either carelessness, lack of in- 
terest and attention, failure to understand 
the meaning or because the ear is at fault. 

We are told to see that the child properly 
interprets the selection, and then make him 
feel that he would like to give this interpre- 
tation to others If we can arouse this men- 
tal condition, the teacher need have no 
trouble about the expression. 



46 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

It is also said that pupils do not need a 
musical ear in order to read with proper in- 
flection. 

Many teachers, no doubt, have found a 
few pupils who could not detect the differ- 
ence between the rising and the falling inflec- 
tion. In such cases the ear must be at fault, 
and it is ear training that they need. The 
following method is suggested by some of 
the older teachers : 

To break up monotonous reading, practise 
pupils for four or five minutes at the begin- 
ing of a reading lesson upon a column of 
letters, figures or words. 

Drill the pupils first upon such a list as 
the following, aranged vertically upon the 
blackboard and marked with the falling in- 
flections: a, e, i, 6, u, if, yes, no, where, 
etc. Then use the rising inflection on the 
same list, then alternate. Finally use both 
inflections on the same word ; as, yes, yes 
no, no, etc. 

The teacher may allow the pupils to give 
these inflections at first in concert, then in- 
dividually. In giving the falling inflection 
see that pupils do not drop the voice too 



INFLECTION 47 

low. It should be raised slightly before al- 
lowing it to fall, and should then drop only 
to the pitch of the sentence, not below it. 
Thus ; "I said come ' ' , not ' ' I said 

come ' ' . 

After the pupils are able to give the pro- 
per inflections on words, the teacher may 
use selections in a similar manner. 

If a child does not read a sentence proper- 
ly, it is often of advantage to have him close 
his book and tell in the exact words, the 
sentence he has read. The . exact words 
should be given, as it is upon this combina- 
tion that he failed. Then say, ' ' Open your 
book and read it just as you have told it." 
It has beeniound that a child will speak 
the exact words of a book properly when he 
is Dot looking at the text. It then seems to 
be a habit of reading incorrectly, not talking 
incorrectly, or else due to lack of interest and 
attention. 

Probably the above difficulty is caused by 
improper attention to reading in the child's 
early life. 

Our aim should be to produce natural 
readers. 



48 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

(e) Cadence 

Melody is an agreeable succession of sin- 
gle tones of varied pitch. 

Melody makes reading pleasing to the ear; 
its absence produces a monotone. 

Melody causes the proper cadence of sen- 
tences. 

1. " Cadence is the closing tone of a sen- 
tence. " It is usually considered as ' ' the fall- 
ing of the voice in reading or speaking, espec- 
ially at the end of a sentence. ' ' 

If the same pitch were continued to the 
end of each sentence, melody would be dis- 
troyed. It is more pleasing to the ear to al- 
low the voice to descend on the last few words; 
the mind is thus prepared for the close, and 
abruptness is prevented. The degree of the 
fall depends upon the emotion to be ex- 
pressed. In sentences expressing strong 
emotion, the fall is more abrupt and low ; 
in sentences having slight emotion, the fall 
is slight ; in short sentences expressing mod- 
erate emotion, the fall is slight ; in long sen- 
tences, the fall begins farther from the close 
and is lower. 



CADENCE 49 

Faults of cadence 

1. The voice is sometimes continued with 
little variation of pitch to the close of the 
sentence, then dropped abruptly. This is 
often the fault of children when reading too 
difficult selections. 

2. The voice may fall too low at the end of 
the sentence. This is often noticed in the 
pulpit. There are many speakers whose fi- 
nal words are seldom heard. This fault 
sometimes arises from repeated reading of 
grave and solemn selections. Where the 
voice falls, the articulation should be espec- 
ially distinct. 

3. Some people begin to lower the voice al- 
most at the beginning of the sentence, and 
before the end is reached it is so low that it 
can scarcely be heard. This is another 
fault often heard in the pulpit. 

II. How taught 

The above faults should be corrected by 
the teacher whenever they occur. Little can 
be done with cadence unless the pupil knows 
something of melody. There are few chil- 
dren, however, who need special training in 



50 READING IK TRAINING CLASSES 

this ; most of them can give all variations of 
pitch necessary for good reading. If pupils 
understand the meaning of what they read 
and try to express it, there is usually little 
difficulty in cadence. 

Sometimes the teacher may read and ex- 
aggerate the error. But we cannot expect 
the child to give proper cadence if his ear can- 
not detect the variations of pitch. In such 
cases the teacher's work must be to give ear- 
training. This can be done by drilling pu- 
pils upon different elementary sounds, let- 
ters and words, varying the pitch until the 
pupil can detect the difference. 

(/) Phrasing or Grouping 

By phrasing or grouping is meant reading 
a number of words together that express one 
picture or contain one idea. 

Children often read several ideas as one 
and as a result they understand nothing of 
what they read. Some pupils have the 
habit of reading just as long as they can with 
one inspiration, then pause anywhere, re- 
gardless of the sense, then take another 
breath, and proceed as before. Such read- 



CADENCE 51 

ing conveys no meaning, and all melody is 
destroyed. 

This subject of grouping should receive 
careful attention. Pupils should be taught 
to look for pictures, and read together those 
words that express one picture, pausing be- 
tween the pictures, but never in the middle 
of one. 

In the beginning of this study the teacher 
will need to explain the way in which a 
clear idea can be found. She may proceed 
as follows : 

Place upon the board the word ' ' boat ' ' for 
instance. Ask several members of the class 
what they think of when they see that word- 
;Some will say a steam-boat, others a row- 
boat, etc. The idea is not clear, therefore ; 
other words must be put with it to make a 
complete picture. 

Suppose we say l ' a boat on the water ' ' . 
By proper questioning the pupils will still 
see that the picture is not clear and it is nec- 
essary to use still more words. We finally 
have the following : "A row-boat was on the 
water. ' ' 

Drill in a similar manner using other 



52 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

words until the pupils can readily make and 
distinguish one clear picture, and only one. 

The next step will be to give the pupils 
simple sentences containing two or three pic- 
tures and have the pupils find and read the 
words that represent one clear idea or picture. 
Then have them read the whole sentence, 
pausing between the pictures. If they pause 
in the middle of an idea, the teacher must 
call their attention to the fact by judicious 
questions. 

No doubt at first the pupils will pause 
longer than desirable after each picture, but 
this will be remedied by practice. 

Give the pupils extracts gradually increas- 
ing in difficulty until they are able to select 
the groups in any passage found in their 
readers. The teachers cannot use the selec- 
tions in their readers at first, as they are too- 
difficult for this drill. 

Pauses 

Pauses are usually considered to be cessa- 
tions of the voice in reading or speaking. 

Pauses are of two kinds, rhetorical and 
grammatical. 

Grammatical pauses are visible signs used 



PAUSES 53 

to make the meaning clear. They are punc- 
tuation marks, the period, interrogation 
point, exclamation point, colon, semi-colon, 
and comma. 

Rhetorical pauses are cessations of the 
voice for the purpose of emphasis, and of 
conveying to the hearers the sense of the se- 
lection. These are independent of punctua- 
tion marks. They often occur where there 
are no punctuation marks at all. 

Rhetorical pauses are determined by the 
nature of the subject and the meaning to be 
expressed. The reader must have the 
power to analyze and determine the mean- 
ing and the most important words and 
phrases. 

The length of the pauses usually depends 
upon the importance of the words empha- 
sized and the size of the room. Often a word 
or phrase will make a far deeper impression 
upon an audience when spoken in a louder 
tone with greater force. 

Few rales can be given, for pauses depend 
greatly upon the nature of the subject and 
the circumstance under which it is rendered. 
No rules should be learned by the children, 



54 READING lis" TRAINING CLASSES 

but the following are given for the benefit of 
the teacher. 

1. Pauses occur after an emphatic word; as? 
" I never will lay down my arms — never , \ 

NEVER, | NEVER," I 

Note— When a word requires much empha- 
sis, pauses often occur before and after it. 

2. Pauses occur before and after parentheti- 
cal expressions ; as, 

" If there's a Power above us, | (and that 
there is, all nature cries aloud through all 
her works), | He must delight in virtue." 

Qualifying words, phrases or clauses, are 
set off by pauses ; as, 

"The trapper was placed in a rude seat, | 
which had been made with studied care, | 
to support his frame in an upright and easy 
attitude." 

' ' The moonlight, pure, | bright, | soft, | 
lambent | and clear, I streamed in through 
rents in the broken walls." 

4. Pauses usually occur after explanatory 
modifiers ; as, 

' ' John, the blacksmith' s son, [ has come. ' ' 

5. Pauses occur between words or phrases 
of a series ; as, 



PAUSES 55 

v • He has apples, | peaches, | pears, | and 
grapes to sell." 

6. Pauses occur in the place of omitted 
words ; as, 

" It' s dangerous, | better not venture 
there." 

7. Pauses occur between words or phrases 
in contrast or opposition ; as, 

' ' I have seen the effects of love | and ha- 
tred, | joy | and grief, | hope | and des- 
pair. ' ' 

' ' I said he was braver, | not better. ' ' 

How taught 

When pupils are able to determine each 
picture in a selection, there is little trouble 
with the pauses. 

The punctuation marks enable one to de- 
termine the meaning, but have nothing fur- 
ther to do with the pauses. Very often 
pauses are made where there are no marks of 
punctuation at all. The pupils should be 
so thoroughly drilled in phrasing that they 
will be able to detect a picture instantly, 
and then the pause will come unconsciously. 

Care should be exercised in reading poetry 



56 HEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

to avoid the sing-song which is so prevalent 
among school children. 

Note. — When marking the pauses in a se- 
lection, vertical lines are placed wherever the 
cessations of the voice occurs, whether it be 
at the mark of punctuation or not. 

Mark the pauses in the following selection: 
' ' The city slumbers. 0' er its mighty walls 
Night's dusky mantle soft and silent falls ; 
Sleep o'er the world slow waves its wand of 

lead, 
And ready torpors wrap each sinking head. 
Stilled is the stir of labor and of life ; 
Hushed is the hum, and tranquillized the 

strife. 
Man is at rest, with all his hopes and fears ; 
The young forget their sports, the old their 

cares ; 
The grave are careless ; those who joy or 

weep, 
All rest contented on the arm of sleep. ' ' 

— R. T. Conrad. 

(g) Expression or Quality 

Quality has been previously discussed, 
and those desiring to consider expression as 



EXPRESSION 57 

synonymous with this, need give no further 
attention to the subject. 

One says that expression ' * is the highest 
quality of good reading. It embraces intelli- 
gent reading and something more, for read- 
ing may be intelligent and not be expres- 
sive. ' ' 

Webster defines expression as " a vivid rep- 
resentation of meaning, sentiment or feel- 
ing. ' ' 

To read with correct expression, we must 
give attention to all the topics previously 
considered. One reads with expression when 
he properly interprets the author's thought 
and feelings, and gives them to others in the 
correct tone, pitch, rate, etc. 

A child cannot read expressively if he is 
unable to put himself in sympathy with the 
thought and enter into the sentiment of the 
selection. But a teacher may do much to 
help a child, if she is careful in the choice of 
selections, if the pupil has no vocal defects, 
if he has a sympathetic nature, if all 
errors are promptly corrected, and lastly 
if the teacher can furnish a good example 
herself. 



58 BEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

Sympathetic pieces and dialogues furnish 
some good material for this work. 

The following questions are merely to sug- 
gest suitable review work. 

1. (a) Define reading. (6) What are the 
aims in teaching reading? (c) Which of 
these aims should receive the more attention 
in the primary grades and why ? 

2. Define emphasis, modulation, pitch, 
quantity, rate. 

3. (a) Define force. (6) What are the kinds 
of force ? (c) When should each be used ? 
"I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris, and he ; 
I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all 

three : 

'Good speed!' cried the watch, as the gate- 
bolts undrew ; 

'Speed!' echoed the wall to us galloping 
through ; 

Behind shut the postern, the lights sunk to 
rest, 

And into the midnight we galloped abreast." 

— " How they brought the Good News from 
Ghent to Aix. — Robert Browning. 

4. (a) To what grade is the above selection 
suited? (6) Write two questions — other 



PRONUNCIATION 59 

than those relating to the meaning of words 
— that you would ask pupils regarding the 
passage before having it read aloud. 

5. With what rate and pitch should the 
above selection be rendered ? Give reasons 
for your answer. 

6. Mark the emphatic words in the above 
selection and give reasons in each case. 

7. Mark the pauses in the selecteon and 
give reasons for each. 

8. Mark the proper inflections. 

B. Physical Elements 

By physical elements we mean those pertain- 
ing to the body and its members. 

Under this head are considered pronuncia- 
tion, articulation, enunciation, accent, man- 
agment of breath, emphasis, force, pitch, 
rate, inflection, cadence, facial expression, 
gesture, and posture. 

The physical elements enable the mental 
lauguage of one to be made visible and au- 
dible to another, and add meaning and force 
to the speakers words. 

(a) Pronunciation 

Pronunciation is the distinct and correct 
utterance of the elementary sounds com- 



60 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

bined into syllables and words. It includes 
the elementary sounds of a language, phonics, 
articulation, enunciation, syllabication and 
accent. 

Some consider pronunciation, articulation, 
and enunciation synonymous. They are, 
however, distinct. Pronunciation deals with 
a whole syllable or word, while articulation 
deals with the elementary sounds that go to 
make up the syllable or word. Articulation 
deals with the parts, pronunciation with the 
whole syllables and words. Each sound and 
syllable of a word must be perfectly articu- 
lated before the whole word can be pro- 
nounced. 

Articulation has reference to the move- 
ment of the vocal organs, the lips, teeth, 
tongue and palate, in producing a sound ; 
while enunciation includes the correct move- 
ment, but the actual sound produced. Ar- 
ticulation may be termed the process, enun- 
ciation the result. 

Enunciation is considered by Webster as 
the fullness and distinctness of articulation. 
He says to enunciate is to make distinctly 
audible. Therefore the chief difference be- 



PKONUNCIATION 61 

tween these two terms seems to be that of de- 
gree only. If a child should speak a sound, 
syllable or sound correctly, but indistinctly, 
the fault would be in enunciation not in ar- 
ticulation. 

Articulation is the basis of pronunciation. 
Every mistake made in pronunciation is due 
to an error in articulation, enunciation or 
accent. 

The voice must be capable of producing 
the sounds of a language before a syllable or 
word can be formed. One may be capable 
of articulating the sounds of a word perfect- 
ly, and yet mispronounce the word by fail- 
ure to join them correctly in the syllables. 
Again, the sounds and syllables of a word 
may be perfectly formed and still be incor- 
rectly pronounced by misplacing the accent. 

As has been stated, pronunciation is not 
constant, it is liable to change from age to 
age and in different localities. 

We usually take the best educated people 
of London as our authority in so far as they 
agree. Whenever they differ, we have Web- 
ster' s, the Standard, and the Century dic- 
tionaries to follow, and if these are vastly dif- 



62 READING IK TRAINING CLASSES 

ferent, we must accept the pronunciation of 
the best speakers of the present time. 

Methods of Teaching 

There are three methods of teaching pro- 
nunciation, the associative, the alphabetic, 
and the phonic. 

The Associative or Word Method 

The pupil sees the word, the teacher pro- 
nounces it, then the pupil pronounces it. 
The child associates the name with the writ- 
ten form, just as he associates a spoken name 
with an object. 

We are told that every child should 
be first taught pronunciation in this way. 

Advantages 

1. A child will be able to read before he 
knows his letters. 

2. It is the natural method because it is 
the way in which he learned to talk ; he 
learned first to associate the name with the 
object, now he learns to associate the name 
with the written form. 

3. It is the rational method because it 



PRONUNCIATION 



63 



teaches from the known spoken word to the 
unknown written form. 

4. A child is more interested in words that 
express some idea, than in abstract letters. 

5. It follows the order of development of a 
written language. Signs were used before 
letters to represent words. The word is to 
the child simply a sign of an idea or object. 

Disadvantages 

1. The child is made dependent. He can 
pronounce no new words without assistance. 

2. If he forgets the pronunciation of a word 
he has no way of recalling it. 

3. He is given no key by which he can pro- 
nounce words for himself. 

It is therefore best to use some other 
method, with the associative to remedy the 
above dimcllties. 

Alphabetic Method 

No matter what method be used for 
teaching pronunciation, the pupils at some 
time learn the letters and pronounce words 
by looking at the letters and judging of their 
sounds. All persons do this in ordinary read- 
ing. There is, however, no advantage in 



64 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

teaching the letters first abstractly ; it would 
be one of the most arbitrary and illegal 
methods that could be devised. The letters 
are taught incidentally and at a very early 
period of the child's school work. Most 
teachers of the present time teach words be- 
fore letters. 

The Phonic Method 

By this method the pupils are taught the 
sound of the letters and then by combining 
the sounds they get the pronunciation of the 
word. 

Take the word cat for instance. The pu- 
pils are taught the sound of c, then of a, 
then of t, and then they repeat these sounds 
in order with increasing rapidity until they 
blend, and the correct pronunciation of the 
word cat is secured. 

This method tends to make the child in- 
dependent by giving him a key to pronunci- 
ation, and when used in connection with the 
associative method, affords an excellent way 
of teaching reading. 

Objections to Phonic Method 

1. The pupils find difficulty in reading un- 
marked words. 



PRONUNCIATION 65 

2. A purely phonetic method would create 
poor spellers, as many words are not spelled 
as they sound. 

3. When used as the only method of teach- 
ing it would be slow and likely to prove un- 
interesting to the child. A child wants 
words that mean something to him ; not ab- 
stract sounds or letters. 

How taught 

1. No matter what method is used, the 
teacher should combine the words into sen- 
tences and the sentences into stories as soon as 
possible. The child will thus become interest- 
ed in his work. 

2. Carfully combine all methods but begin 
with the associative. 

3. Assist the pupils in the pronunciation of 
words only when necessary. 

If pupils know at, they can easily pro- 
nounce such words as mat, hat, cat, etc., by 
knowing the letter or sound of the letter pre- 
fixed or added. 

4. Avoid as far as possible all abstract 
teaching. 

5. Show the pupils the positions of the 
vocal organs. 



66 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

6. Do not allow pupils to spell a word 
aloud in order to pronounce it. 

7. As soon as possible teach the sounds of 
the letters and have pupils pronounce words 
by sound. 

8. Keep a list of the words commonly mis- 
pronounced and drill upon these frequently. 
Such words as geography, nothing, which, 
etc., need constant attention. 

9. Follow the pronunciation of those with 
whom you associate unless it is incorrect. If 
the majority of your associates say either 
and neither instead of either and neither, 
follow them rather than appear affected by 
using the other pronunciation. 

Articulation 

Articulation is the distinct expression of 
the elementary sounds of a language and the 
union of these sounds. 

Each pupil should be taught: 

1. to recognize instantly the elementary 
sounds 

2. to produce the elementary sounds cor- 
rectly 

3. to combine them in reading and speak- 
ing. 



ARTICULATION 67 

A child must be drilled upon correct ar- 
ticulation from the first day of school. 

How taught 

1. The teacher should give the sound and 
the pupils imitate. They may be allowed 
to give the sound in concert first, then indi- 
vidually. If pupils are not able to detect 
the difference in the sounds, then ear train- 
ing is necessary. The teacher may exagger- 
ate the difference. The teacher should show 
the pupils the position of the vcoal organs. 
'2. The teacher should give constant drill 
on phonics. 

Teach not only single sounds but combi- 
nation of sounds, and give much attention to 
all difficult combinations. 

3. All errors of the pupils should be noted 
and frequent drill given upon the correct 
sound. 

Difficulties or faults of articulation 

1. Several consonants occuring in succes- 
sion often form a different combination ; as 
particularly, strength. Drill constantly 
upon such words. 



68 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

2. Sometimes the position of the accent 
makes the word difficult to articulate ; as in 
dis sol u ble 

3. The mouth may not be oppened suffi- 
ciently, or the vocal organs may not be in 
a proper position, and indistinct articula- 
tion is the result. 

Often one or more syllables are omitted or 
clipped ; as, goverment for government, 
rithmetic for arithmetic, play in for playing. 
The teacher should keep a list of words 
most commonly mispronounced in her 
school and give frequent drill upon them. 

5. The following sounds are often difficult 
to articulate, ing and ight, eh, ment ; th as 
in thing ; is often called iss instead of iz ; 
ness is pronounced niss. 

6. All local errors should be corrected, as r 
at the end of words ending in a ; v for w ; s 
for th ; ch for j, and j for ch ; d f or t ; p for 
b, and b for p. 

7. Similar sounds occuring in succession 
are often difficult to pronounce ; as, 

' 'When loud surges lash the sounding shore, 
The hoarse, rough voice should like the tor- 
rents roar." 



ARTICULATION 69 

Pupils should be drilled upon such combi- 
nations as ' ' Peter Piper picked a peck of 
pickled peppers; if Peter Piper picked a 
peck of pickled peppers, where is the peck 
of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked?" 

Stammering is another fault of articula- 
tion. It may be caused by associating with 
persons who stammer, by speaking too rap- 
idly, or from habit. In either case the pupil 
should know what he is to say before attempt- 
ing to speak, take full breath, and speak 
slowly. 

Nervousness, excitement, diffidence, em- 
barassment, and anger sometimes cause stam- 
mering. In such cases remove as far as pos- 
sible all causes for excitement. As the sys- 
tem becomes stronger the pupil may be able 
to control his vocal organs. 

Often one who stammers can sing accurate- 
ly. The teacher may require pupils to read, 
beating time. 

It is said that Demosthenes overcame this 
trouble by reading with pebbles in his mouth. 

If the teacher is persistent the fault can us- 
ually be remedied by some of the above 
methods unless it be caused from some de- 



70 READING IN TEAINING CLASSES 

feat in the vocal organs, in which case the- 
teacher can do little to remedy it. 

Lisping 

This may be caused by the tongue being 
too large for the mouth ; it thus strikes the 
front teeth in forming of s, and th is the re- 
sult. Sometimes it is the result of affecta- 
tion. The pupils should be made to see 
that it is as great a fault as mispronounc- 
ing words in common use. 

All cases of lisping can usually be reme- 
died by constant practise and being careful 
to place the tip of the tongue against the 
upper front teeth for th and against the gums 
of the upper front teeth to produce s. 

Enunciation 

It seems best to reserve the discussion of 
phonics and syllabication until we consider 
enunciation, as this is so clearly associated 
with articulation and both have to do with 
the above mentioned topics. 

Enunciation has been previously defined 
as the fullness or distinctness of articulation. 

Garlick says, ' ' As good pronunciation de- 
pends upon the sounding of the vowels, so 



ENUNCIATION 71 

good enunciation depends upon the correct 
sounding of the consonants. Bad articula- 
tion is often due to faulty enunciation. 

Errors in Enunciation 

The chief errors of enunciation are 

1. Suppression of syllables ; as, famly for 
family. 

2. Omission of sounds; as, cad for card, 
fiels for fields. 

3. Blending the termination of one syll- 
able with the beginning of another; as, some 
vas swilderness for some vast wilderness. 

4. Substitution of sounds; as, suller for 
cellar. 

The above faults may be due to habit (we 
are likely to speak as our associates), ignor- 
ance, carelessness, or inattention. 

When children first enter school their 
minds are plastic and the above faults can 
usually be remedied by constant, persistent 
drill. More drill is required when pupils 
continually hear incorrect enunciation out- 
side of school. 

Syllabication 

A syllable is a sound or a combination of 



72 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

sounds uttered by a single impulse of the 
voice. 

A monosyllable is a word of one syllable; 
as, boy. 

A dissyllable is a word of two syllables; 
as, for-sake. 

A trisyllable is a word of three syllables; 
as, sup-pres-sion. 

A polysyllable is a word of more than 
three syllables : as, un-de-ter-mi-na-ble. 

The ear should be sufficiently trained so 
that a single impulse of the voice can be 
detected. Often by speaking the word 
slowly the syllables will be recognized. 

This subject has of late been much 
neglected in the spelling work. Words are 
often mispelled because the syllables are not 
known or recognized. 

We need to know the syllables in writing, 
for we always separate a word at the end of 
a line by syllables. 

Phonics 

By phonics is meant the sounds of the 
human voice in speaking and reading. 

The English language is not phonetic. 
A language is phonetic when one character 



PHONICS 73 

and only one represents each sound, and 
when words are spelled and pronounced as 
they sound. 

The object of teaching phonics is: 

1. To train the ear so that the correct 
sounds can be detected when heard 

2. To train the vocal organs to form these 
sounds accurately and automatically. 

The teacher should insist upon the correct 
formation of each sound at all times, other- 
wise the production of these sounds will not 
be quick and automatic. 

Results to be secured from the 
Teaching of Phonics 

1. The child is aided in articulation, enun- 
ciation, pronunciation, and spelling. 

2. He gets a key to pronunciation by which 
he can pronounce words for himself, and is 
thus made independent of the teacher. 

Letters are of two kinds, vowels and con- 
sonants. 

There are 26 letters but at least 44 sounds. 
Of these sounds 20 are represented by vowels 
and 24 by consonants; therefore, some let- 
ters represent more than one sound, and 



74 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

some sounds are represented by more than 
one letter. 

The organs of speech are the lips, teeth, 
tongue, and palate, sometimes called the 
vocal organs. 

A vowel is a letter that represents a pure 
sound of the voice but slightly modified by 
the organs of speech. The vowels are a, e, 
i, o, u and sometimes w and y. "W is a 
vowel when with a preceeding vowel it rep- 
resents a vowel sound ; " as, few, how. Y 
is a vowel when it is at the end or in the 
middle of a syllable; as, my, eye. 

A consonant is a letter which represents a 
sound of the voice greatly modified by the 
organs of speech. The consonants are: b, c, 
d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels 
in one syllable; as ou in out, house. 

Diphthongs are of two kinds, proper and 
improper. 

A proper diphthong is a single sound 
formed by the union of two vowels in one 
syllable, which is different from either alone; 
as, oi in oil, ow in owl. 

An improper diphthong is the union of 



PHONICS 75 

two vowels in one syllable, only one of which 
is sounded; as, eo in people, ai in hail, ei 
in either. 

A digraph is two letters combined to rep- 
resent a single sound. 

dg=j as in edge 
f'gh—f as in cough 

) ph— f=v as in sylph=fin self=vin re- 
( vi've' 

du=zkw, k as in queen, conquer 

si=sh, zh as in tension, vision 

tch=ch, sh, k as in match 

ti=sh as in motion 

wh=hw as in what 

th=as in thin 

ng = n as in long 

Methods of Teaching Phonies. 

Spend only four or five minutes once or 
twice a day in this work. 

The following method is suggested: 

The teacher first places the letter upon the 
board thus; a Incidentally the teacher 
will call attention to the macron. 

She gives the sound and requires the 
pupils to imitate. Pupils may stand or sit 



76 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

as desired and the whole school may partici- 
pate or only one olass as seems necessary or 
desirable. At first have all repeat in con- 
cert, then each alone. Only one or two 
sounds should be given during the first few 
lessons and the teacher should be careful 
and not give too many at a time. Drill 
upon the sounds at various times during the 
day as opportunity offers. 

After the pupils are able to recognize and 
give a half dozen sounds the teacher may 
facilitate her work by the use of cards. A 
set of these cards used in the Ward method 
of teaching reading may be secured of the 
publishers, Silver, Burdette & Co., New 
York City, or the teacher can make them. 
Take a piece of cardboard 3 by 4 inches 
with the script form of the letter properly 
marked upon one side, the printed form 
upon the other. These should be suffi- 
ciently large so that all in the room may 
see them, and the script form only should 
be shown the pupils. Resort to the print 
form only when unavoidable. 

Proceed as follows with the cards*. 

The teacher standing in such a position 



phonics 77 

that all may see, and taking each in order, 
show each a phonogram or letter. If he 
cannot give the sound instantly call out 
tell, and have the others prompt him. Be 
rapid in the work even if many pupils fail 
at first. Rapidity on the part of the pupils 
will come with practice. 

The rapidity of this work and the interest 
aroused secures the attention of the pupil. 

The number of sounds taught the first 
year will depend chiefly upon the teacher. 

If the Ward method of teaching reading 
is used, the pupils must know nearly all 
the sounds by the first year and a half of 
school life. If they leave school at this 
time they will have a complete key of the 
English language and their ability to read 
is assured. The first phonogram taught by 
this method is f, and a few of the first are f, 
1, m, r, s, a, e, o, ing, ings, ight, ights. 

Space will not allow further discussion of 
this method at this point. 

Other methods of teaching reading usu- 
ally aim to teach the long and short sounds 
of some or all of the vowels the first year. 

Those teachers who know the value of 



78 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

the sounds in reading and spelling will give 
much attention to this subject. 

Accent 

Accent is the greater force of the voice 
upon one or more syllables of a word. 

The purpose of accent is to regulate the 
pronunciation, and give a pleasing element 
to speech. 

There are two kinds of accent, primary 
and secondary. 

Primary accent is the stronger accent in 
pronouncing words as, vi o lin". 

Secondary accent is the weaker accent in 
pronouncing words; as, vi' o lin". 

All words of the English language that 
have more than one syllable have one ac- 
cented syllable. 

Note — The accent is indicated by a little 
mark (') placed above and to the right of a 
syllable. The primary accent has a heavier 
line or a double line. 

How taught 

Accent is taught chiefly by imitation, 
correcting errors and constant drill upon 
the correct pronunciation. 



ACCENT 79 

One of the most common errors of pro- 
nunciation is misplacing accent. 

In order to learn the general principles 
governing accent, consult one of the stan- 
dard dictionaries. The rules have many 
exceptions and few if any should be learned 
by the pupils. There is one, however, that 
is of sufficient accuracy to be noted. 

In compounds the adjective or modifying 
part of the word usually takes the accent, 
as in school'-house, pen'-knife. 

The teacher should keep a list of words 
most commonly mispronounced by pupils 
and drill upon these frequently. 
Exercise; 

Mark diaciticarlly the following words: 
abdomen ab do m&n. 

Arabic, Asia, adulteration, albumnious, 
acclimate, assimilation, again, area, apostle 
accusations, address, audible, benzine, bac- 
teria, bicycle, boudoir, bouquet, bronchial, 
canine, cascade, complex, construe, deglu- 
tition, drama, dyspepsia, desist, encore, eus- 
tachian, eligible, extent, education, esquire, 
frost, forge, food, gallows, gelatin, hemor- 
rhages, interesting, illustrate, idea, January, 



80 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

jaunty, jaguar, ketchup, lyceum, leisure, 
lacteals, microscope, museum, nausea, oc- 
cult, oxidation, perspiratory, precedence, 
quarrel, racial, recluse, romance, repose, 
psalm. 

The older pupils may be given a list of 
words and after marking them to the best 
of their ability, allow them to verify by 
use of the dictionary. 

It is wise to note that many words or 
parts of speech, having the same form are 
distinguished by accent alone. Nouns and 
adjectives are often thus distinguished from 
verbs. 

Examples: 

Why does your ab'sent friend absent' 
himself? 

Did he abstract' an ab'stract of your 
speech from the desk ? 

Note the mark of ac'cent and accent' the 
right syllable. 

Management of breath 

In order to speak or read well one must 
use the breath correctly. 

The muscles of the diaphragm and sides 



MANAGEMENT OF BREATH 81 

should be brought into action, the waist 
should be enlarged and the whole chest cav- 
ity expanded. 

One should use no more breath than is 
needed. 

Breath should not be mixed with the 
voice. 

There is no need of a person's getting out 
of breath in reading, if he inspires at the 
proper places and then is economical in 
the use of his breath. 

We should always inhale through the 
nose. 

Exercise in breathing 

Position — There are two positions usually 
considered for these exercises, the military 
position and the rostrum position. 

Military position. — Body erect, the ear, 
shoulder, hip, and ankle joint should be in 
a vertical line; hands at sides, heels to- 
gether or nearly so; weight of body equally 
distributed on both feet. 

The rostrum position: Body erect, hands 
at sides, one foot slightly in advance of 
the other in such a position that if drawn 



82 HEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

back the heel will strike the hollow of the 
back foot. Weight of body on back foot. 

A Few Exercises in Breathing 

1. Taking either of the above positions, 
pupils inhale through the nose, teacher 
counting slowly 1, 2, 3, 4, hold breath 1, 
2, 3, 4, exhale through the mouth 1, 2, 3, 4. 

2. Pupils inhale and hold the breath as 
before teacher counting; exhale explosively. 

3. Pupils place hands at waist, ends of 
fingers touching in front, inhale as in num- 
ber one. Aim to expand the waist so the 
fingers will be pulled apart. Exhale either 
explosively or gradually. 

4. Pupils inhale as before and exhale 
slowly, producing some tone or tones in- 
dicated by the teacher. 

5. Hand and arm work may be done dur- 
ing exercises if desired. 

Do all exercises slowly. Vary the exer- 
cises from day to day. 

(c) Emphasis, force, pitch, rate, inflec- 
tion, cadence have been given sufficient 
attention under the Mental Elements. 



FACIAL EXPRESSION 83 

(d) Facial Expression 

This subject can receive little attention 
in the public schools; its place is in more 
advanced work. All that the district school 
teacher can hope to do is to arouse the feel- 
ings, or emotions of the pupils. As the 
expression of the face is an indication of 
the feelings the features must show the 
sentiments aroused. 

0) Gesture 

By gesture is meant motions of the body 
or limbs to express feelings. 

This subject as well as facial expressions 
is more appropriately considered under elo- 
cution and therefore will receive no atten- 
tion in this work on reading. 

(/) Posture 

By posture is meant the position of the 
body and its members. 

The person should stand erect, chest 
leading, hips thrown back. It is better to 
incline a little toward the audience than 
away from it. 

There are two positions allowable in read- 
ing, the military and the rostrum. These 



84 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

have been considered under Management of 
Breath. 

In speaking it is better to change the 
position occasionally and thus avoid an 
appearance of stiffness. 

In reading the book is usually held in the- 
left hand so that the leaves may be turned 
with the right. 

When no book is used in reading, the 
hands are in the best position when hang- 
ing easily at the sides, except when needed 
for gesture, although other positions are 
often seen. 

Allow no leaning on desks, standing on 
one foot, knee of other leg on seat or chair, 
a swaying of the body or any awkward 
position. 

II. Material 

(a) Choice for reading. 

1. Extensive Reading— Quantity 

It is not the number of books read, but 
the quality of the books that should receive 
a teacher's careful attention. 

G. Stanley Hall says, "Widely read young 
people are alwayt feebly educated." No- 



EXTENSIVE READING 85 

one at the age of fifteen or sixteen can have 
mentally digested many books. 

Such men as Webster and Lincoln had 
but few books in their boyhood days, but 
these were thoroughly read and studied, and 
many passages were committed to memory. 

About fifteen minutes twice a day should 
be devoted to reading in the primary grades, 
twenty minutes a least once a day in the 
intermediate grades, and thirty minutes 
once a day in the grammar grades. 

Some hold that above the 4th reader 
grade no graded reader need be chosen, but 
pupils should begin the study of literary 
productions and as far as possible whole 
pieces should be chosen. Theoretically this 
is an excellent plan, but few district schools 
have the facilities for carrying it out. It 
is very difficult if not in many cases impos- 
sible to secure the proper selections; there- 
fore it seems that for a few years longer at 
least we must follow the old plan and 
choose the best graded readers for ail grades. 
In addition to the work in the regular read- 
ing book, supplementary reading should be 
introduced at least as often as once a week, 



86 HEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

and more interest is secured if this done at 
at time when the pupils do not expect it. 

Authorities differ as to the difficulty of the 
supplementary reading. 

Roark says, "Supplementary matter 
should be a little more difficult, and some- 
what more interesting than the regular 
readers, grade for grade. The reading 
should be done at sight; there should, at 
least, be no preparation made upon it out 
of class." 

As one of the chief purposes of supple- 
mentary reading is to give pupils practice 
in sight reading all agree that the reading 
should not be studied, or if studied simply 
looked over by pupils. But if the reading 
matter is more difficult than that in their 
ordinary book, which they are allowed to 
study, how can we expect them to read this 
without study, with any degree of interest 
or benefit to themselves or pleasure to 
others? 

Supplementary reading should pertain to 
work that will be of help. That is, if 
something in geography is being studied, for 
example, the New England States, the 



EXTENSIVE READING 67 

teacher might have the pupils read some 
such stories aud poems as The Landing of 
the Pilgrims, The Courtship of Miles 
Standish. 

The chief aims of supplementary reading 
are: 

1. To give drill and training in sight 
reading. 

2. To create a love for reading. 

3. To create a love for the best in litera- 
ture. 

4. To improve the child's expression and 
increase his vocabulary, thus helping him 
in his language work. 

5. To aid in various branches of school 
work as geography, history. 

6. To broaden the child's knowledge. 

Characteristics of good reading books 

1. They should be well printed, well 
written, attractive, and give pleasure. 

2. They should be instructive, that is, 
they should impart some knowledge. 

3. They should be adapted to the age 
and grade at' the pupil. 

4. They must be interesting. Therefore, 
they should not contain short pieces. 



88 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

5. The book should be progressive. Each 
lesson should be a little more difficult than 
the preceding and contain a few new words. 

6. They sheuld be of a high moral tone 
and aim to cultivate the affections and 
moral feelings. 

7. They should contain something in his- 
tory, oiography, travel, nature, and some 
standard fiction. 

How many books beside the reading book, 
can be read each term? At least one book 
of medium length can be read in all grades 
up to the fifth, and from the fifth to the 
eighth or ninth inclusive two or three might 
possibly be read. But the teacher should 
be careful not to have the pupils read so 
much that they are unable mentally to di- 
gest the matter. The amount will depend 
upon the ability of the class. 

The above is given only as a suggestion. 
Many do not use supplementary books but 
selections from standard literature. The 
teacher should use her own judgment in 
regard to the amount the pupils can com- 
prehend. 

In the primary grades the literature 



EXTENSIVE READING 89 

chosen should be much easier and more 
simply written than for the older grades, 
and should to a great extent be fanciful. 
For the first grade the teacher may be 
obliged to tell the story at first to the pu- 
pils and then have the pupils tell in simple 
sentences what the teacher has told. The 
teacher writes these sentences upon the 
board and pupils read them. 

We should try to create a love for the 
best in literature. Children who know and 
love the best will rarely be influenced by 
the many unsuitable stories written at the 
present time; they will not care to read them. 

On Friday afternoons the teacher may 
give a little time to reciting choice extracts 
and whole pieces of classic literature. She 
should not aim so much for eloquence as 
for good expression. 

When there is no suitable supplementary 
matter in the school the teacher may ask 
those pupils who can to bring books, poems, 
or papers. She must tell them the kind of 
material she desires, otherwise very unsuit- 
able matter may be brought. 

The one who brought the book may read 



90 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

from it, but if he is willing to let the others 
take it, it is better to have them do most of 
the reading, for very likely he is familiar 
with the words and will receive but little 
drill in sight reading, while the others will 
receive none at all. 

Questions on Extensive Reading 

1. How much time should be spent in 
reading in school? 

2. Should a grade reader be used in all 
grades? Discuss. 

3. When should supplementary reading 
be done, and why ? 

4. What should be the nature of supple- 
mentary reading ? 

5. What are the purposes of supplemen- 
tary reading ? 

6. What are the qualities or character- 
istics of a good reading book ? 

7. How much work in supplementary 
reading can be accomplished in one term in 
the intermediate grades ? 

8. Where can the teacher obtain mater- 
ial for supplementary reading in case there 
is none in the school ? 



EXTENSIVE READING 91 

Extensive Reading — Quality 

The books chosen should be adapted to 
the age and grade of the pupil. 

Classic literature, should be chosen for all 
grades because : 

1. There is always some fancy in classic 
literature and this does much to enliven the 
school work and dull, monotony of life. 

2. It contains some lasting truths. 

3. The scenes and charactistics are de- 
picted in a realistic manner. 

4. It aids in the development of moral 
character by showing not only certain early 
tendencies of individuals but the results 
of the tendencies and an interested reader 
can not fail to be influenced thereby. 

As far as possible we should choose whole 
selections because : 

1. They are more interesting. A char- 
acter worth our acquaintance can not be 
presented to us in a few pages. 

2. They produce a stronger moral ef- 
fect. As time is required for the develop- 
ment of character so space must be given to 
truthfully describe this development. 

3. The meaning is clearer. A story is 



92 READING IN" TRAINING CLASSES 

developed step by step. If any part is 
omitted the meaning becomes vague. 

The best books should always be chosen. 
For books are the companions of many peo- 
ple and they have as great an influence over 
them as their friends; hence it is necessary 
that only those of the best character be read. 

Literature of the Early Grades 

All literature of primary and early inter- 
mediate grades should be alive with fancy. 
The child's imagination is vivid and contin- 
ually imparts life to inanimate objects. 

The literature of these first four grades 
should be taken chiefly from the following: 
nursery melodies, fables, fairy tales, folk 
lore stories, Eobinson Crusoe, and the clas- 
sic myths. Some of the pupils may have 
heard a few of these before they enter 
school, and they will be pleased to learn to 
read the stories that have been told them. 

The fableis suited to the first three grades 
because: 

1. It personifies plant and animal life. 
The child's imagination often pictures trees 
and animals as boys and girls. The fable 



EXTENSIVE READING 93 

may assist the teacher in correcting some 
fault. Perhaps a bird or tree is represented 
as doing some wrong, the same wrong that 
the child is committing. Lead him to see 
the fault in the bird or tree, then apply to 
his own actions. 

2. The dialogue form of the fable makes 
it more natural and interesting to the chil- 
dren. 

Robinson Crusoe is good for oral reading 
in the second grade and as a reading book 
in the third. 

It furnishes material for the language and 
drawing work, assists in the nature study, 
gives the child some knowledge of various 
industries, thus aiding in the preliminary 
geography work. 

The Fairy Tale 

Some hold that the fairy tales should not 
be used as reading matter for children. 
One says that it is not distinctly honest. 
It is the idealized form of the child's 
thought. 

Garlick has given the following reasons 
for and against fairy tales. 



94 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

For: 

1. They are sources of pleasure and af- 
ford a stock of pleasant memories. 

2. They create a love for reading. 

3. They cultivate the imagination. 

4. They help to cultivate the feeling. 
Every good fairy tale has an ethical purport. 

5. They teach the children to believe 
in friendly though invisible forces, and a 
mental attitude is found favorable to the 
reception of great religious truths. 

6. They help the young soul to aim at a 
high ideal. 

Against: 

1. They are said to prevent and harm 
the imagination, being themselves the 
creatures of unbridled imaginations. 

2. They give children false ideas of real 
life and so unfit them for their struggle 
in a matter of fact world. 

3. The wicked uncle, the unkind step- 
mother, the well-specified characters of fairy 
life, often transmit a strong bias against 
their supposed prototypes in real life. 

4. We have sufficient literature without 
them. 



MYTHS 95 

5. They appeared in an ignorant and su- 
perstitious age, were written for a supersti- 
tious people, and were based on superstition, 
and are, therefore, very unsuitable for the 
present enlightened age. 

Myths. 

The myths furnish much good material 
for children. They are fanciful and arouse 
the imagination. The Illiad and the Odys- 
sey are the greatest of the myths. 

The teacher can introduce a little biogra- 
phy, history, geography and science into 
the reading of the third or fourth grade, 
but most of this should be done in the ad- 
vanced grades. Whenever a selection in the 
reading book is along this line the teacher 
should give special attention to it. 

Poems in regard to nature are valuable 
provided they state the truths of nature. 

The teacher may select for the first four 
grades much from the following: Aesop's 
Fables, Anderson's Fairy Tales, Grimm's 
Fairy Tales, Arabian Nights, Bible Stories, 
American Classics, and Greek and Roman 
Mythology. 



96 EEADING IN" TEAIKING CLASSES 

Books and Poems for the First 
Four Years 

1st Year or 1st Grade 

1. A good primer should be selected for 
class work 

2. Nursery rhymes as found in verse and 
prose 

3. Heart of Oak, Vol. I 

4. Aesop's Fables 

5. Bow-bow and Mew-mew 

6. CinderiUa 

7. Little Birdie (poem) —Tennyson 

8. What the Acorns Say (poem) — 
Strong 

9. The Spider and the Fly (poem) — 
Jane Taylor 

10. Open Sesame, Vol. I 

11. Bible Stories: Daniel, David, Prodi- 
gal Son 

2nd Grade 
The following are suggested: 

1. Anderson's Fairy Tales 

2. Grimm's Fairy Tales 

3. Bible Stories: Noah, Ten Command- 
ments. Loaves and Fishes 



BOOKS AND POEMS 97 

4. Nature Stories for Young Readers 
(animals) 

5. Fables and Folk Lore— Scudder 

6. Poems (See First Year) 

3rd Grade 
The following are suggested: 

1. Little Lame Prince 

2. Little Women 



, Alcott 

3. Little Men 

4. Seven Little Sisters 

5. Each and All 

6. Poems. See First Year 

Jfth Grade 
The following are suggested : 

1. Arabian Nights— Richard Gottheil 

2. Bird's Christmas Carol 

3. Children of the Cold 

4. Ten Boys 

5. Wonder-book — Hawthorne 

6. Poems, Heart of Oak, Vol. II 

7. Barbara Frietchie— Whittier 

8. Robert of Lincoln— Bryant 

A little history may be introduced in this 
grade. 

Rourke says: ' 'The pernicious habit still 



98 READING IK TRAINING CLASSES 

exists in a good many schools of using the 
U. S. history as a reading book above the 
fourth or fifth grade. No surer way could 
be devised for killing the pupils' interest in 
both reading and history. The same may 
be said of any other readers that undertake 
definitely to teach other branches than good 
reading. ' ' 

Literature of the 5th and 6th Grades 

The nature of the work of these grades 
should be classical, biographical and histor- 
ical, but fanciful stories such as those used 
in the previous grades should not be 
omitted. 

In the 5th grade we use literature that 
pertains to the pioneer epoch of our country. 
There should be much that will arouse the 
patriotic spirit and love of country. 

Dr. McMurry in his Special Method in 
Reading suggests the following for this grade : 

1. Higginson's American Explorers 

2. Pilgrims and Puritans 

3. Stories of Our Country 

4. Grandfather's Chair — Hawthorne 

5. King of the Golden River — Ruskin 



5th and 6th grades 99 

One or more of the above should be read 
a term, but perhaps many schools might 
read much more. The aim throughout the 
work should be to cultivate a taste in litera- 
ture and have the pupils acquainted with 
more than one author. They should not, 
however, read so much nor such a variety 
that they are unable to comprehend it. The 
following poems will be found suitable for 
this grade. 

1. Psalm of Life— Longfellow 

2. The Children's Hour— Longfellow 

3. Village Blacksmith— Longfellow 

4. Barefoot Boy — Whittier 

6th Grade 

Many of those mentioned under the 5th 
grade are well suited to the 6th. 

Some pupils of the 6th grade might be 
able to comprehend the following: 

1. A Hunting of the Deer — Warner 

2. Sketch Book — Irving 

3. Being a Boy 

Poems : 

4. Snow Bound — Whittier 

5. Paul Revere' s Ride — Longfellow 

6. Enoch Arden— Tennyson 



100 READING IIS" TRAINING CLASSES 

7 th Grade 

There should be much work in this grade 
pertaining to history and biography, although 
in all grades some fiction should be chosen. 

As the period of the Revolution is studied 
in this grade, pupils might read some such 
book as Scudder's Life of Washington, 
Fiske' s War of Independence, Hosmer' s Life 
of Samuel Adams. 

Other books suitable for this grade are : 

1. Tales From Shakspere by Charles and 
Mary Lamb 

2. Alhambra 

3. Boys of '76 -Coffin 

4. A Man Without a Country — Hale 
Poems : 

5. Maud Muller— Whittier 

6. A Forest Hymn — Bryant 

7. Ancient Mariner — Coleridge 

8th Grade 
The historical work of the 8th grade 
should pertain to the period after the revo- 
lution and should give the pupils a good 
knowledge of the development of our coun- 
try. The lives of such men as John Adams, 
John Quincy Adams, Daniel Webster, Abra- 



EIGHTH GRADE 101 

ham Lincoln, U. S. Grant, etc., should be 
read. Selections of the best literature 
should also be chosen. 

The following are suggested : 

1. Vision of Sir Launfal — Lowell 

2. Julius Csesar — Shakspere 

3. Lady of the Lake — Scott 

4. Webster's Reply to Hayne 
[ 5. Roger de Coverly Papers 

6. Bacon's Essays 

7. Plutarch's Lives 

All reading matter chosen for use in any 
grade should be classical. 

The predominating element of the primary 
grades is fancy, and here is found suitable 
material in Aesop' s Fables, Anderson' s Fairy 
Tales, Grimm's Fairy Tales, etc. 

In the intermediate grade myths, stories 
of brave deeds of our countrymen, narra- 
tives, descriptions, nature stories and some 
history are used. 

In the advanced grades such literature as 
will prepare them for the duties of life is 
needed. Suitable material for these 

grades is found in the narrations, descrip- 
tions, historical and biographical works of 



102 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

the best American and European writers. 

Each teacher should become familiar with 
the books as outlined in the teachers manual 
prepared by the New York Education De- 
partment. The teacher should know to 
what grade the books mentioned are suited 
and as far as possible read the books. 

A judicious teacher can use a classic pro- 
duct in several grades. Snow Bound has 
been used from the 3rd to the 7th grade in- 
clusive, but is best suited to the 6th grade. 

The development of history seems to cor- 
respond quite closely with the development 
of the individual. The early literature 
seems more suitable for the child than much 
of later origin. The age of folk lore and 
fairy tale is often called the childhood of the 
race. 

The following list of books is given for the 
benefit of the teacher. The exact grade to 
which each is suited should be determined 
by the teacher herself. 

For the Primary Grades 

Aesop's Fables 

Grimm's Fairy Tales 

Black Beauty — Anna Sewall 



PRIMARY GRADES 103 

Robinson Crusoe— De Foe 

Seven Little Sisters — Jane Andrews 

Each and All 

Cinderella 

Little Red Riding Hood 

Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children 

Jack and the Beanstalk 

Bible Stories 

Alice in Wonderland 

Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe 

Hawthorne's Wonder Book 

Open Sesame, Part I 

Heart of Oak, Vol. I 

Little Men — Alcott 

Little Women — Alcott 

Pansy Family — Peck 

Old Stories Retold— Binner 

For the Intermediate Grades 
Water Babies — Kingsley 
Arabian Nights 
Gulliver's Travels 
Hiawatha — Longfellow 
Wake Robin — Holtzclaw 
Ten Boys on the Road From Long Ago 
Till Now 

Bird's Christmas Carol 



104 BEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

Tanglewood Tales — Hawthorne 

Open Sesame, Vol. II 

Lays of Ancient Rome — Macaulay 

Pilgrim's Progress — Bunyan 

Plutarch's Lives 

Grandfather's Chair — Hawthorne 

Poor Boys Who Became Famous 

Girls Who Became Famous 

Beginner's American History 

First Book in American History 

Knocking Around the Rockies 

Around the World in Eighty Days 

Little Lord Fauntleroy 

Heart of Oak. Vol. II and III 

Green Mountain Boys 

King of the Golden River — Ruskin 

Little Men— Alcott 

Little Women — Alcott 

Poems 
Barbara Frietchie — Whittier 
The Old Oaken Bucket— Samuel Wood- 
worth 

Paul Revere' s Ride — Longfellow 
Barefoot Boy — Whittier 
Village Blacksmith — Longfellow 



GRAMMAR GRADES 105 

Robert of Lincoln — Bryant 
Pied Piper — Browning 
Planting of the Apple Tree 
Sheridan's Ride 
Children' s Hour — Longfellow 

Grammar Grades 
Sketch Book — Irving 
Tales of a Grandfather 
Birds and Bees — Burroughs 
A Hunting of the Deer — Warner 
First Landing of the Pilgrims — R. Southey 
Declaration of Independence 
Tales of Shakspere — Charles and Mary 
Lamb 

Seven American Classics 

Webster's Reply to Hayne 

Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech 

Merchant of Venice — Shakspere 

Julius Caesar — Shakspere 

Bacon's Essays 

Alhambra — Irving 

Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin 

Heart of Oak, Vol. IV and V 

Ivanhoe — Scott 

Rob Roy 

Succession of Forest Trees 



106 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

Rab and His Friends — Brown 
Silas Marner— Eliot 
Burke's American Orations 
Masterpieces of American Literature 
Rasselas 

Uncle Tom's Cabin— Stowe 
Cooper's Leather Stocking Tales 
Tom Brown at Rugby 
Poems 
Maud Muller— Whittier 
First Snow Fall— Lowell 
Courtship of Miles Standish — Longfellow 
Battle Hymn of the Republic — Howe 
Cotter's Saturday Night — Burns 
Star Spangled Banner 
Vision of Sir Launfal — Lowell 
Enoch Arden — Tennyson 
Prisoner of Chillon — Byron 
For 'a That and 'a That— Burns 
To a Water Fowl— Bryant 
Thanotopsis — Bryant 
Snow Bound — Whittier 
Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill — 
Holmes 

Evangeline — Longfellow 
Lady of the Lake— Scott 



QUESTIONS ON INTENSIVE HEADING 107 

The Holy Grail— Tennyson 

The Witch's Daughter— Whittier 

The Reaper and the Flowers — Longfellow 

The Rainy Day — Longfellow 

Questions on Intensive Reading 
Quality 

1. Discuss the advisability of using (a) 
classic literature, (b) whole selections. 

2. From what sources may we obtain the 
literature of the first four grades ? 

3. What are the predominating elements 
of (a) primary reading, (6) intermediate 
reading, (c) advanced reading ? 

4. Name three books and three poems 
suitable for (a) primary grades, (b) inter- 
mediate grades, (c) advanced grades. 

(6) Yariety 

Much more interest is secured in reading 
if the pupils are allowed to read from more 
than one book. Where only one book is 
used in a class, the pieces are often learned 
by heart; then the reading becomes a me- 
chanical process, all interest is lost, and 



108 BEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

they are of no further use for reading pur- 
poses. 

The teacher' s duty is to create a love for 
reading and at the same time see that the 
pupils gain some knowledge. These aims 
can be obtained only by a sufficient and 
a varied amount of material. This material 
should contain biography, history, some- 
thing on science and geography, narrations, 
descriptions, arguments, and some fiction. 

If there is no supplementary reading mat- 
ter in the school, ask pupils to bring books, 
papers, etc. With the older pupils many 
articles from the newspaper can be read. 
The Youth's Companion contains much 
good reading matter for all grades. 

•(c) Adaptation 

The material chosen should be adapted to 
the age and grade of the pupil, should im- 
part some knowledge, and should be interest- 
ing. 

For- the primary grades we should use se- 
lections that are written in simple language 
and are alive with fancy. We find much 
that is suitable in the nursery rhymes, fairy 



ADAPTATION 



109 



tales, fables, folk lore stories, Robinson 
Crusoe and the various myths. 

For the intermediate grade we read selec- 
tons more difficult ; and while some of the 
literature should be fanciful we need narra- 
tions, descriptions, dialogues, a little history, 
and poems from our American authors as 
Whittier and Longfellow. 

For the advanced grades we should use 
still more difficult selections, from the works 
of American and European Writers. We 
should choose for these grades, history, bio- 
graphies of famous men and women, argu- 
ments, narrations, descriptions, fiction, and 
some articles that would be of use in science 

work. . 

Many of the late readers contain much 

that is valuable for the grades for which they 
are intended 

Reading correlated with other 
subjects 

Almost as soon as a child can recognize a 
word he is taught to write it, and by writting 
it he incidentally learns the letters and thus 
knows how to spell it. 

Much may be done in the reading class in 



110 READING IN" TRAINING CLASSES 

preparation for composition work. Punct- 
uation and capitalization should be noted 
and often the reading lesson forms a valu- 
able reproduction exercise. 

Then again reading may be made to 
supplement the work in geography and his- 
tory. When the class are studying the 
Middle Atlantic States the reading may per- 
tain to that work. 

Chief uses of a reading book 

1. It gives unformity to the teaching. 

2. It lightens the work of the teacher. 

Questions that may be asked upon a 
selection 

1. To what grade is this suited, and why ? 

2. Give the central thought of each stanza 
or paragraph. 

3. Give the thought of this selection in 
your own words. 

4. If the selection be poetry, we might be 
asked to paraphrase. This is pratically the 
same as questions 3. 

5. At what rate should this be read ? 

6. In what time should this be read ? 

7. Are the time and rate the same through- 



QUESTIONS UPON A SELECTION Hi 

out the selection; if not, where do they 
change ? 

8. Mark the rhetorical pauses. 

9. Write five questions, other than those 
relating to the meaning of words that you 
would ask pupils regarding the passage be- 
fore having it read aloud. 

10. Describe the preparation a teacher 
should make upon the above selection. 

11. What information should be given pu- 
pils in regard to this selection before they be- 
gin to study it ? 

12. Select from the above selection rive 
words and give a synonym of each. 

13. Select five words and give the analysis 
of each. 

It may be impossible to find one selection 
to which all of the above questions are suited. 
They are only given to show teachers the 
nature of questions upon various selections. 
It would be a good practice for those pre- 
paring for examinations to take a selection 
and answer as many of the above questions 
as possible. 



112 BEADING IX TRAINING CLASSES 

Methods 

It is said that when a child enters school 
at five or six years of age he has a vocabul- 
ary of from five hundred to one thousand 
words depending upon his associations. 
These words he knows only through the ear, 
and it is the teacher's duty to help him re- 
cognize them through the eye. 

Before we can expect a child to do much 
reading, we must get him to talking upon 
come topic of interest to him. While this is 
language rather than reading it will give him 
confidence, and he will forget his surround- 
ings and be ready to give attention to the 
work at hand. 

The mechanics of reading should receive 
much attention in the first years of school. 

By the mechanics of reading is meant in- 
stant recognition of word and letter forms 
and values, articulation, pronunciation, 
phonics, etc. 

Primary Reading 

We may say that in teaching reading, as in 
any other subject, there are two methods, 
the synthetic and the analytic. 



PRIMARY READING 113 

As the synthetic method means building 
up, we begin, if we use this method, with 
either the letters or the sounds and build up 
the word. We therefore see that the synthe- 
tic method has two forms, the old "A. B. C. 
grind" or alphabetic method, and the 
phonic method. 

Analytic Method 

As analytic means "tearing down", we 
begin, if we use this method, with the whole 
sentence and divide it into words, or with 
the word and divide it into letters or sounds. 

Therefore this has two divisions, the sen- 
tence method and the word method. 

As the above methods are not usually 
mentioned as such by teachers of reading 
we will proceed at once to the various meth- 
ods commonly considered. 

Yarious methods that hare been 
used in teaching reading 

1. Word method also known as "Webb 
method" and "Reading without spelling"; 
in England it is called the "Look and say 
Method" 



114 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

2. Sentence method 

3. Phonic method 

4. Phonetic method 

5. Word building method 

6. Object method 

7. Group method 

8. Alphabetic method 

9. Drawing method 

10. Ward or Rational method 

While few, if any, primary teachers of the- 
present time use one of these methods to the 
exclusion of all others, most teachers use no- 
more than three or four. 

Those most commonly used are the word, 
sentence, phonetic, alphabetic and Ward or 
Rational. 

The last is a combination of the Ward 
and phonetic. 

Word Method 

In the word method we begin by teaching 
words as wholes. 

1. The idea is aroused in the child's 
mind either by conversation, pictures, ob- 
jects, or drawings. 

2. The word is spoken by the child, 

3. The spoken word is associated with the 



WOKD METHOD 115 

written form which the teacher places upon 
the blackboard. 

4. The pupils are made familiar with the 
word by selecting it from among other 
words (a) upon the blackboard, or finding it 
(b) upon the chart, or (c) in their book. 

5. Pupils use the word in sentences ■ This 
will enable them to understand its meaning. 

6. Pupils write the word on the board and 
later at their desks. 

7. The letters are taught incidentally. 

8. The word is spelled by the pupils. 

If the word that is to be taught is familiar 
to the child as a spoken word, as ' 'cat' ' , no 
object need be used in its presentation ; in 
fact it would a waste of time to do so. 

Advantages 

1. It proceeds from the known spoken 
word to the unknown written word, thus 
following the principles of ' 'Proceed from the 
known to the related unknown/' 

2. It teaches the whole word before the 
pupils know any of the parts, and pupils are 
thus enabled to recognize words and read 
before they know their letters. Children 
always recognize objects as wholes rather 



116 READING IN" TRAINING CLASSES 

than the individual parts. This method 
follows another principle' "Proceed from 
the whole to the parts." 

3. This is the natural method. Children 
learn to talk by saying single words at first. 

Those opposed to the method say, " We 
think in sentences, act in single words"; 
therefore we should teach reading in the 
order in which our thoughts develop. 

Sentence Method 

In this method whole sentences are used 
first. The child is induced by objects or 
otherwise to express a thought in a sen- 
tence. The teacher writes the child's oral 
sentence on the board and he thus becomes 
familiar with its form. 

The words are taught incidentally, much 
the same as the letters were in the word 
method. 

Illustration of the Sentence Method 

Suppose the teacher has a picture show- 
ing dogs in various attitudes. She points 
to one dog and asks, " What is the dog do- 
ing?" One child answers: "That dog is 
running. " Then pointing to the other dogs 



ILLUSTRATION" 117 

she asks similar questions and elicits such 
answers as 

That clog is running. 

That dog is playing. 

That dog barks. 

That dog sleeps. 

The teacher writes the above sentences 
upon the board as the pupils give them, 
then reads each distinctly to class, pointing 
to each as she reads. 

Then she calls upon each pupil to say 
his sentence from the board. The teacher 
points to each sentence as the child reads. 

After a little children will notice that 
there is one word in each sentence just the 
same and with a little work on the part of 
the teacher they will say that this word is 
dog. They may also notice the word that 
and discover what it is. 

Each pupil may be allowed to write at his 
seat his sentence and others if he can read 
them. 

The sentences are left on the board and 
at the next lesson each pupil is called upon 
to read his own sentence and then he may 
point out and read the other sentences. 



118 READING IN TRAILING CLASSES 

Those in favor of this method claim: 

1. That we do not think in single words 
but in sentences, therefore we ought to read 
in sentences. 

2. Most pupils taught in this way read 
more smooth!} 7 than when taught by single 
words. 

3. The eye does not look at the words 
spoken but several words ahead, and one 
must comprehend several words in order to 
read smoothly. 

Its opponents say: 

1. The word is the unit of thought, not 
the sentence. 

2. It is not long before the pupils recog- 
nize the words and read by words and not 
sentences. 

3. It would take too much time to teach 
all sentences needed in reading. Children 
must know words in order to know different 
combinations. For full explanation, see 
Farnham's "Sentence Method in Reading." 

Phonic Method 

In this method the teacher teaches the 
sound of the letters so that the pupil deter- 



PHONIC METHOD 119 

mines the word by uttering the sounds of 
the letters in succession and with sufficient 
rapidity that they may blend. 

Take the word ' 'cat for instance. 

The teacher utters the first sound and 
places on the board the letter that stands for 
that sound. She does not, however, say 
that is "c" and then give the sound of "k", 
but simply gives the sound and puts the 
letter on the board. She proceeds in a sim- 
ilar way with the other letters of the word. 
After the pupils can produce each sound as 
soon as the letters are written, as c a t, the 
teacher tells them to pronounce them in 
succession increasing the rapidity until the 
sounds blend and the word is recognized by 
the pupils, 

Other words are taught in a similar man- 
ner. Soon all the sounds of all the letters 
will be given to the pupils. 

A pure phonic method cannot be used to 
advantage because our language has only 26 
letters and fully 44 sounds. 

Children are likely to become confused 
when told that ' 'a' ' sometimes has this sound 
as in cat and sometimes another sound as in 



120 BEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

half, etc. They will have no way of telling 
what sound to use. A pure phonic method 
does not mark the letters. Many letters are 
silent. This method works to advantage 
however, when used in connection with the 
word method. 

As the sounds of the letters depend to a 
great extent upon their position in the word, 
some teachers require young pupils to learn 
rules for phonics. For example in the word 
made, a is long when in the middle of the 
word ending in silent e. In mad "a" is 
short because it is in the middle of a word 
which does not end in e. 

The chief advantages are that it puts in 
the hands of the pupils a key to pronuncia- 
tion, and aids in spelling, articulation, and 
enunciation. The elementary sounds must 
be known before a child is able to pronounce 
three- fourths of all the words of the English 
language leaving 25 f to be learned in some 
other way. 

Phonetic Method 

This method uses signs or diacritical marks 
to represent the sounds of the language; the 
letters each represent but one sound and 



PHONETIC METHOD 121 

modifications of these represent the other 
sounds. 

To use this entirely would require the 
books to be reprinted. 

At the present time many seem to consider 
the phonic and phonetic method the same. 
We might, however, make this distinction: 
when the sounds of the letters are taught 
and the letters are unmarked, we are using 
the phonic method, but when the sounds of 
the letters are taught and the letters are 
marked, as a, a, a, etc., we are using the 
phonetic method. 

Both methods have practically the same 
advantages, but the phonetic method seems 
to be the better of the two, for the diacriti- 
cal marks tell the child the exact sound of 
the letters used. 

Little or no trouble will arise when this 
method is used in connection with the word 
method; when this method is used in a 
proper manner, the instant the pupils see a 
word with its proper marks they can pro- 
nounce it. 

5. Word Building Method 

In this method we begin with words of one 



122 BEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

letter and prefix or affix other letters: as a, 
an, and, land, etc. 

This method is rarely used at the present 
time. 

6. Object Method 

This is similar to the word method. In 
this method, however, we always use objects, 
pictures, drawings, etc., to arouse the idea, 
while in the word method we use objects, 
etc., only whem we are teaching a word 
which the child does not use in his conver- 
sation and of which he has no idea. If we 
were teaching the word dog, it would be 
utter nonsense to bring a dog or picture of 
a dog before the class, but not so if we were 
teaching the name of an animal not known 
to the child. 

7. Group Method 

This method teaches pupils to read a 
group of related words. 

In reading "the boy", the pupils are 
taught to read it as a single word, putting 
the accent on the word boy as we would if it 
were the syllable of a word. This method 
aids a child to read with proper expression 



ALPHABETIC METHOD 123 

and if used after the pupils know a few 
words may greatly aid the pupils. 

8. Alphabetic Method 

By this method the pupils are taught in 
various ways the letters of the alphabet, 
then by learning to spell and pronounce the 
words they learn to read. 

A purely alphabetic method of teaching 
reading is rarely if ever used at the present 
time. 

The chief objections are : 

1. It is slow and a waste of time. A pu- 
pil can be taught to read and also learn the 
alphabet in the time formerly required to 
learn the alphabet alone. 

2. It produces stumbling, hesitating 
readers. 

3. It does not proceed from the known to 
the related unknown but starts with some- 
thing entirely new to the child. 

iSo points can be given in favor of teach- 
ing the alphabet before learning to read. 

The alphabet is now taught incidentally 
in connection with words and is described 
under the "Word Method". It is a good 



124 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

plan to have the letters of the alphabet (both 
the large and small letters) placed in order 
at the top of one of the boards from A to Z. 
The pupils thus learn the alphabet in order 
by having it constantly before them. It is 
necessary that every one should know the 
alphabet in this way, as the letters are al- 
ways so arranged in books of reference. 

9. Drawing Method 

This method teaches the child first to 
draw the letter, then to learn its name. 
This method is now used only in connection 
with the word method. 

10. Ward or Rational Method 

This method is that advocated by Edward 
G. Ward, late associate superintendent of 
public instruction, Brooklyn, N. Y. 

The following is a brief description of 
this method, much of which is in the words 
of the author. 

The Eational method is a peculiar com- 
bination of the word and phonetic methods. 

The word method is used first until the 
pupils are able to recognize a few words, 
and read a few short sentences. It then 



WARD OR RATIONAL METHOD 125 

gradually gives place to the phonetic, which 
becomes the chief means of growth and pro- 
gress. It imparts power while it supplies 
the key which the word method is inade- 
quate to give. 

The aims of the Rational method are: 

1. To make the child not only independ- 
ent in his reading, but generally self-reliant. 

2. To enable him to read a vastly greater 
amount than heretofore in a given time, 
and thus acquire not only a fuller vocabu- 
lary but greater maturity of mind. 

3. To put him in possession, during the 
first year and a half of school life, of a com- 
plete key to the language, so that, no mat- 
ter how soon thereafter his schooling may 
cease, his ability to read will be assured. 

The following are some of the leading 
features of the phonetic part of the work: 

1. The presentation of the sounds and 
their symbols (phonograms) in a rational 
order. 

2. The teaching of an initial stock of 
phonograms before any phonetic reading is 
done. 

3. The training of the ear in the percep- 



126 READING IK TRAINING CLASSES 

tion of phonetic blends, before phonetic 
reading is begun. 

4. An extensive and sympathetic use of 
word phonograms and other compound pho- 
nograms. 

5. A careful grading of the phonetic 
words introduced. 

6. The general introduction of phonetic 
words into the sentence reading. 

7. Separate daily drills in the recognition 
of the individual phonograms and the read- 
ing of single phonetic words. 

A phonogram is a written or printed repre- 
sentation of sound, either simple or com- 
pound. Examples: f, s, 1, ing, ight. 

Sight word. A word that has been taught 
as a 'whole, and is therefore recognized by 
sight alone. 

Phonetic word. A word to be read by 
means of its phonograms. 

Sight reading. The reading of sight words 
either singly or in sentences. 

Phonetic reading. The reading of phonetic 
words either singly or in sentences. 

Simple phonogram. A phonogram con- 
taining but one letter. Examples: s, t, o. 



WARD OR RATIONAL METHOD 127 

Compound phonogram. A phonogram 
containing more than one letter. Example : 
ing, ight, ip, on, ness. 

( Every compound phonogram represents 
a compound sound, which, however, is 
taught as a unit.) 

Word phonogram. A sight word used as a 
phonogram in the representation of a longer 
word. 

Examples : old in fold, ail in sail, an in man. 

Blend. The"^ union or combination of 
sounds, simple orcompouud or both, to form 
words. 

Three lines of work to be practiced each 
day during the first eight weeks. 

1. Sight reading. 

2. Drill in phonograms. 

3. Ear training. 

Commence with the blackboard, using 
script characters only and teach such sight 
words as a, ail, all, again, etc. 

Use words in sentences from the very be. 
ginning. 

The teacher makes her own sentences 
and so far as possible she works them into 
story form. 



128 READING IN" TRAINING CLASSES 

Never allow a child to read a sentence 
until he can do so without a break. If he 
hesitates tell him he must not read until he 
has the sentence all ready. Give him the 
privilege of asking by number any word he 
does not know. Suppose we have the sen- 
tence, "I have a large black cat". The 
child does not know the word large. He 
simply asks for number four to be pro- 
nounced. 

If a child does not read with proper ex- 
pression, try to secure this by questioning, 
and if he fails and you are sure that he un- 
derstands the sentence, read it for him and 
require him to read it after you. Some- 
times it is of advantage to exaggerate the 
emphasis and inflection. 

How to teach s and ing forms : 

When a half dozen singular nouns and 
three or four simple verbs are known, write 
any convenient one on the board and have 
pupils tell what it is. Then add to it an s 
and tell them what it is. Now take another 
familiar word, add an s to it, and instead of 
telling them what it is, have them tell you. 
Continue this until they readily distinguish 



WARD OR RATIONAL METHOD 129 

between the simple and the s form of any 
word. 

Then teach them the ing forms in a simi- 
lar manner and then the ings. 

Avoid until the end of the year such words 
as goes, making, etc., which involve the ad- 
dition or elimination of e. 

Drill in phonograms. 

This is a preparation for phonetic read- 
ing. 

The first phonograms used are, f, 1, m, 
n, r, s, a, e, o, ing, ings, ight, ights. 

The drill on this work must begin when 
the first blackboard work begins, and con- 
tinue until all are thoroughly known and 
recognized at once. 

The method of teaching these was des- 
scribed under phonics. No letter names 
are taught during the first half year. 

Never attempt to teach a phonogram un- 
til you are sure you can pronounce it your- 
self. Never teach a new one until the old 
ones are thoroughly known. Never accept 
from pupils anything but an accurate pro- 
nunciation. 



130 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

Ear training 

This begins at the very beginning of the 
term and is practised daily. Tell a story 
and introduce here and there a phonetic 
word. Pronounce the words only by sounds ,, 
not by wholes, and have pupils tell what the 
word is as soon as you have pronounced it. 
As, I saw a sheep in the fold. 

Those desiring to use this method must 
of necessity send for a teachers manual, and 
the phonetic cards are very helpful. 

Most teachers at the present time use 
script letters from the very first when writ- 
ing upon the blackboard. 

A Combined Method 

In case you do not wish to use the above 
method, the following is suggested: 

Begin with the word method. Teach the 
word in the following manner. 

Suppose the word we wish to teach is. 
bird. 

1. Arouse the idea by conversation, draw- 
ing picture or object, and then have pupils, 
speak the word. 

2. The teacher may then say, " Now V\\ 



A COMBINED METHOD 131 

say bird and won't move my lips", or "Xovv 
I'll make the crayon say bird". And then 
she proceeds to write the word upon the 
board. 

(The teacher should be very careful about 
her penmanship and never make a letter in 
a different way.) 

3. Have them find the word when written 
among other words upon the board; have 
them rind it upon the chart and in their 
book. 

4. Have the pupils use the word in a sen- 
tence. 

5. Then the teacher may say, I wonder 
how many can say bird the way I did when 
I put this upon the board. No doubt the 
children will be anxious to try, and the 
teacher may allow all to pass to the board 
and write the word. 

The pupils' hands may need guiding at 
first and possibly the teacher may write the 
word and allow the pupils to trace it. 

6. The letters are taught incidentally. 
She may say something like this when they 

are writing the word. "Your b is not quite 
like mine," or " We always put a dot over 



132 READING IK TRAINING CLASSES 

the £," "The r is a little taller than the 
i", etc. After a little she may point 
to the letters of the word and ask their 
names. 

7. When the pupils can tell each letter 
readily have them note the order of the let- 
ters, then ask them to spell the word. 

8. When the pupils go to their seats 
have them write this new word several times. 
The child should be taught to recognize and 
use several words before he can spell any 
one of them. 

Perhaps the next word taught may be a 
suitable adjective or verb. 

The idea of many of the early verbs may 
be aroused by showing the action and by pro- 
per questioning. 

We can draw from the pupils that birds 
sing and fly. After the idea is aroused pro- 
ceed as above with the new word. 

Write the verb and the noun and form 
the sentence. Our object should be to 
have the pupils read sentences as soon as 
possible. 

When we have several nouns, adjectives 
and verbs, write them into as many combi- 



A COMBINED METHOD 133 

nations as possible. Of course they should 
always form sentences. 

As soon as possible write the sentences 
and form a story. Thus the teacher can 
make her own reading book. 

One of the chief aims of primary reading 
is to make the learner recognize instantly 
word and letter forms and values. There- 
fore constant drill on old words is necessary. 

One way of drilling in this is to have the 
pupils read the sentences backwards. 

General Suggestions 

As previously stated, the mechanics of 
reading receives most of the attention in the 
primary grades, but in all our work we 
should try and cultivate a taste for reading, 
and reading the best in literature. We 
should also aim to have the pupils properly 
interpret what they read and be able to give 
this interpretation to others with the proper 
expression. 

The pupils should read in clear, easy na- 
tural tones; read as they talk, provided they 
talk correctly. 

After the pupils are able to read a few 



134 READING IK TRAINING CLASSES 

sentences readily, the teacher may begin 
the teaching of phonics. She may take 
some easy sound, as long a in ate. The long 
and short sounds of all the vowels could be 
taught the first year, but the teacher should 
aim to teach the sounds most needed and 
thus place in the hands of the pupils as 
early as possible a key to pronounce words 
for themselves. 

If no phonics were taught the pupils 
would be able to pronounce no word that had 
not previously been pronounced for them. 

For method of teaching phonics, see Pho- 
nics, page 

Dr. Brooks says that he regards the cor- 
rect method to be: 

To begin with the word method, and 
after the child becomes familiar with a num- 
ber of words and can read little sentences, 
lead the pupil to analyze the words into 
their elementary sounds and characters and 
thus correct it by the phonic method. It 
has been a question which elements of the 
word should be presented first, the sounds 
or the letters. Dr. Brooks says teach the 
sounds first, the letters afterwards. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 135 

All diacritical marks should be thoroughly 
taught in the primary grades. 

Defects in Primary Reading 

1. Inability to recognize words readily, 
thus producing stumbling readers. 

2. Failure to interpret the thought, thus 
causing improper expression. 

The teacher should explain passages not 
readily understood. 

3. Poor enunciation. This arises from 
improper training of the vocal organs. 

Drill upon words difficult to pronounce 
and upon certain combinations. See Artic- 
ulation, page 72. 

4. Timidity. 

Results of the first year's Work 

At the end of the first year a child should 
be able to recognize and pronounce in- 
stantly the simpler words that he uses in 
his conversation; he should be able to write 
and spell most of them; he should know the 
long and short sounds of the vowels; if 
taught by the Ward method he will know 
many more sounds, and he should have 



136 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

some idea of the pleasure he can get when 
he is able to read readily. 

The child can do little with reading until 
he is thoroughly drilled in the mechanics of 
reading. By this drill he will be able to 
read smoothly and avoid stumbling, halting, 
stopping to spell words while reading, and 
miscalling words. 

Intermediate Reading 

The amount of work accomplished will de- 
pend chiefly upon the work done in the pre- 
vious grades. 

We should spend at least half of our time 
in these grades on thought getting, although 
much attention must also be given to the 
mechanics of reading. As pupils advance, 
less attention is given to the mechanics of 
reading and more to the interpretation of 
the selection. 

The following topics receive attention in 
intermediate reading. 

1. Word study. 

2. Thought study and thought getting. 
[ 3. Actual reading or thought giving. 

Most of the time should be devoted to the 



ItfTEKMEDIATE HEADING 137 

last two topics, thought getting and thought 
giving. 

The teacher should always look over the 
reading lesson before attempting to assist 
the class with it. 

The last three or five minutes of the pre- 
ceding lesson should be devoted to the pre- 
paration of the succeeding lesson. The 
teacher should give such assistance during 
this time as will enable the pupils to pre- 
pare the work for themselves. All difficult 
passages should be explained, that is, if she 
feels that the pupils are unable to interpret 
them, and new words should be noted. 

The teacher may sometimes call attention 
to certain marks of punctuation. 

Word Study 

This should be done during the last three 
or five minutes of the preceding recitation. 

The new words in the next lesson should 
be considered. 

1. The teacher should have a list of the 
new words. She may place these upon the 
board and have pupils pronounce them with- 
out marks if possible. If they cannot pro- 



138 BEADING lis" TRAINING CLASSES 

nouuce them the teacher may mark them 
and then call for the pronunciation. 

2. Meaning of words. 

Sometimes the teacher may require the 
pupils to analyze the words; that is, to di- 
vide them into stem, prefix and suffix, and 
determine the meaning from them. 

Again she may use objects or illustrations, 
if the meaning of the word can be better 
obtained in this way. The word transparent 
can probably be better explained by illustra- 
tion than in any other way. 

Have the pupils use the new word in a 
sentence. This may be a part of the lan- 
guage lesson if desired. 

Sometimes ask for synonyms of the word. 

It is very unwise to require pupils to 
learn a definition abstractly. Definitions 
are often meaningless. Often there is a 
list of words and definitions preceding each 
lesson. Many times the words used in the 
definition are more difficult than the word 
defined. It is a waste of time to require 
pupils to learn this list. We can probably 
learn the meaning of a new word much bet- 
ter by hearing it used in a sentence. 



WORD STUDY 139 

At the end of the fourth or beginning of 
the fifth grade, the pupils should be taught 
the use of the dictionary. As soon as pos- 
sible the teacher should insist upon the 
words being pronounced and studied by the 
pupils themselves. 

Thought getting 

After the preliminary work the pupils 
should study the lessons by themselves, so 
that most of the time of the recitation per- 
iod may be devoted to actual reading. 

Thought giving 

After the class is called the teacher may 
sometimes ask a few questions to see if the 
lesson be properly prepared and compre- 
hended by the pupils. 

Sometimes she may ask pupils to tell the 
whole story. Again this may be entirely 
omitted and the reading begun at once. 

Correcting errors 

During the reading allow no unnecessary 
criticisms. Do not stop a child in the mid- 
dle of a sentence unless it be for continued 
carelessness. For careless errors require 
the whole paragraph to be re-read. 



140 READING IN TRAILING CLASSES 

It is unwise to allow all hands to be raised 
upon the slightest error. It embarrasses 
the reader and hinders his best work. 

Expression 

If pupils do not read with the proper ex- 
pression ask questions to bring out the 
thought. 

Sometimes correct expression may be se- 
cured by requiring the pupil to close the 
book and tell the exact words of the book, 
then open the book and read. 

If the meaning is thoroughly understood 
and the child does not read correctly, the 
teacher may read and require the pupils to 
imitate. 

Faults of intermediate reading 

The faults in the intermediate grade are 
much the same as in the primary, although 
probably in no grade are boys and girls more 
likely than here to be careless, inattentive 
and indolent. 

In these grades we often find incorrect 
articulation, improper emphasis or no em- 
phasis at all, and similar errors* These are 



FAULTS OF INTERMEDIATE READING 141 

usually due to carelessness, improper atten- 
tion, lack of study, etc. 

Any serious faults in articulation should 
be corrected by oral drill. 

The teacher should keep a list of the 
words most commonly mispronounced and 
drill upon these. 

Suggestions for recitation 

1. The teacher may devote a few minutes 
to questions upon the selection or these may 
be entirely omitted. The judgment of 
the teacher will determine when questions 
are best. 

2. Pupils should be called upon to read 
not in order but irregularly. 

3. Pupils may sometimes face the class, 
sometimes stand in the back of the room. 
If pupils face the class it tends to give them 
confidence so that they will not be so much 
embarrassed if required to appear before a 
large audience. 

4. If the class is not large, all may read 
each day. 

5. Serious errors should be corrected by 



142 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

requiring the sentence or paragraph to be 
re-read, usually by the same pupil. 

6. If a pupil cannot pronounce a word it 
shows improper preparation on the part of 
the pupil, or teacher, or both. 

7. Sometimes the teacher may secure in- 
terest by allowing a little discussion of the 
selection. Perhaps the opinion of the pu- 
pils may be asked in regard to some charac- 
ter in the story, if it be a story. 

8. The last three or five minutes should 
be devoted to the preparation of the next 
lesson, new words noted, difficulties ex- 
plained, etc. 

Supplementary reading should be used as 
often as once a week. 

It is not necessary in the reading class 
that each pupil keep his book open. Some- 
times it is better that it be closed and then 
some one be asked to tell what has just been 
read. In order to do this all will be obliged 
to give attention. 

It is] often necessary that the pupil do 
some preliminary work before reading a 
selection. For instance if a classic is to be 
read, as Paul Kevere's Eide, the pupils 



ADVANCED READING 143 

should know who Paul Revere was, from 
what place he started, where he went, and 
why he took this ride, the effect, etc. 

(c) Advanced reading 

Here as in the intermediate grades we 
consider word study, thought getting and 
actual reading or thought giving. 

Most attention in the advanced grades 
should be devoted to the thought; the 
teacher should rarely assist the pupils in 
the pronunciation or meaning of a word. 
They know by this time the use of the dia- 
critical marks and the dictionary. 

We should attend particularly to the 
reading and see that the pupils get the 
thought and read so that others can get it. 
The mechanics of reading receives little at- 
tention in the grades. 

Often pupils are backward in other sub- 
jects because they can not read understand- 
ing^- 

Try to create a love for the best there 
is in literature. 

Give drill upon words commonly mispro- 
nounced. 



144 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

Allow pupils to discuss and express their 
own opinions in regard to the subject mat- 
ter read. 

Suggestions for recitation 

The method varies but little from that of 
the intermediate except that perhaps pupils 
are allowed more freedom in discussion, and 
no time at the close is devoted to the me- 
chanical preparation of the next lesson. 

Concert Reading 

Concert reading should be used but rarely, 
but in a few cases it may be found a help. 
Among the advantages are: 

1. It may help the timid and diffident. 

2. It is a change from the usual method, 
and when used occasionally may produce 
interest. 

3. It tends to produce uniformity in the 
rate, helping the fast readers to read more 
slowly, and the slow readers to read more 
rapidly. 

4. It may aid in pronunciation. 
Among the disadvantages are these: 

1. The best readers receive the benefit. 



CONCERT READING 145 

The poor ones feel that their mistakes will 
not be noticed. 

2. If the class is large some may not read 
at all. 

Possibly more benefit will be derived from 
the concert reading if the class be allowed to 
choose sides, the teacher or someone outside 
the school acting as judge. 

Silent reading 

From the very first silent reading should 
be encouraged, because : 

1. Much of our knowledge is gained 
through silent reading, and nearly all of our 
reading after leaving school is done in this 
way. 

2. We can read more in the same length 
•of time than aloud. 

3. It can be done with little physical ef- 
fort. 

How to train pupils in silent reading 

For the small children: 
1. The teacher may put some direction 
upon the board, the pupils read it silently 
and do as directed. 



146 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

2. The teacher may give some new work 
to the. children. Have them read each sen- 
tence or paragraph silently, then aloud. 

3. The teacher may have the pupils tell 
what they have read silently. 

With the older 'pupils : 

1. AVe may have the pupils recite the 
whole reading lesson, once in a while, with- 
out reading it at all in the class, the teacher 
asking questions. 

2. The teacher may call upon someone to 
tell the whole story during the reading les- 
son, or one pupil may tell the first part and 
another the next, and so on. 

Only by some such plan can the teacher 
be sure that the pupils have properly inter- 
preted the lesson. 

To change the monotony of a recitation in 
reading, dialogues may be made interesting 
by allowing one pupil to represent one char- 
acter, another, another character, etc. 

We may sometimes, but not often, allow 
a pupil to read until he makes a mistake; or 
the teacher may stop one in the middle of a 
sentence and have someone else begin at 
that place and continue . 



SILENT READING 147 

It is a good plan to have each member of the 
reading class learn one poem a month. 
This may be taken from the reader, all learn- 
ing the same one, or each may learn a differ- 
ent one. One or two may be recited each 
day during the reading period, until all have 
recited, or if the poems are different, some 
Friday afternoon may be devoted to this 
work and pupils from all classes may partic- 
ipate. 

Position for reading 

Pupils should in all cases stand erect, and 
not lean on chair or desk. 

There are two positions for the feet. These 
are described under Management of breath, 
page 80. 

The book if not too heavy, is held in the 
left hand. The right hand is used to turn 
the leaves. 

It is always well to have pupils stand fac- 
ing the class. 

Questions for Review 

1. Mention the main objects to be kept in 
view in (a) primary, (ft) advanced reading. 

2. Describe the special preparation that 



148 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

should be required of the pupil preliminary 
to the reading of one of the following selec- 
tions: (a) Paul Revere' s Ride, (6) Webster's 
Reply to Hayne, (c) The Chambered Nau- 
tilus. 

3. Name three results to be secured from 
teaching phonics. 

4. Mention the defects characteristic of 
reading in the intermediate grades and sug- 
gest remedies. 

5. Describe the preparation a teacher 
should make in (a) intermediate reading, 
(6) advanced reading. 

6. Discuss, ' ' There is no better way to 
develop a thinking person than by careful 
training in reading. ' ' 

7. Distinguish between (a) primary and 
intermediate reading, (6) intermediate and 
advanced. 

8. Describe in full a method of teaching 
the word ' *dog' ' . 

9. Describe in full a method of teaching 
(a) primary reading, (6) intermediate read- 
ing. 

10. Name three things that should be kept 
in view in (a) intermediate reading, (b) ad- 
vanced reading. 



WORD STUDY 149 

IT Word study 

A word is a sign of an idea or a sign to 
denote the relation between ideas. 

Words are classified according to their 
uses in sentences as parts of speech; as, noun, 
pronoun, etc. 

Words are classified according to their 
structure as prime and composite. 

A prime word is a word that cannot be 
reduced to any simpler forms ; as, boy, 
play. 

A composite word is a word that can be re- 
duced to simpler parts. It is made up of 
two or more elements; as, girlish, playing. 

The elements of which words are com- 
posed are (1) prime words as, school-house, 
(2) prefixes; as, admit, (3) suffixes; as, 
goodness, (4) stems; as legal. 

A prefix is a letter or letters placed before 
a word to qualify or limit its meaning. 

A svffix is a letter or letters placed after a 
word to qualify or limit its meaning. 

A stem is that element of a word which 
gives the principal meaning to the word, but 
is used only with other elements. 

The stems, prefixes and suffixes of the En- 



loO READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

glish language come mostly from the Anglo- 
Saxon, the Latin and the Greek. 

Formerly stems were called roots. 

The base of a word is the principal ele- 
ment of a word. 

An adjunct is a word, prefix or suffix that 
modifies the base. 

A compound icord is compound of two or 
more prime words. 

In a compound word the base and ad- 
juncts are each words. 

In a derivative word the base is a word and 
the adjunct is a prefix or suffix. 

In a stem compound word the base and ad- 
junct are stems. 

In a stem derivative word the base is a stem 
and the adjuncts are a prefix or suffix or 
both. 

An excellent list of roots, prefixes and 
suffixes, is found in Wilson's Elementary 
English, an admirable text-book. 

To analyze a word is to resolve it into its 
elements. 

The following method of analysis is that 
used in Maxwell's Advanced Lessons in En- 
glish. 



WORD STUDY J 51 

In analyzing a word the following steps 
should be taken: 

1. Give the class name of the word to be 
analyzed. 

2. Name and give the meaning of the base. 

3. Name and give the meaning of the ad- 
junct or adjuncts. 

4. Give the meaning of the whole word. 

Examples of Word Analysis 

agent. 
class — stem derivative 
base — stem ag meaning do. 
adjunct— suffix ent, meaning one who 
meaning — one who does or has the power 

to act 

altitude. 

class — stem derivative 
base— stem alt meaning high or height 
adjunct — suffix tude meaning condition, 
meaning — condition of height 

inhospitable. 
class derivative word 
base — stem derivative word hospitable 
adjunct — prefix in meaning not 
meaning — not hospitable 



152 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

hospitable 
class — stem derivative word 
base— stem hospit meaning guest 
adjunct — suffix able meaning fit to be or 
have 

meaning — fit to have a guest 
meaning of whole word — not fit to have a. 
guest, or not kind to guests. 
railroad. 
class — compound word 
base — simple word road 
adjunct — simple word rail 
meaning— a road upon which rails are 
laid. 

autograph. 
class — stem compound 
base — stem graph meaning write 
adjunct — stem auto meaning self 
meaning of word — something written by 
one's self 

(note) Auto is sometimes given as a pre- 
fix. 

Analyze each of the following words, fol- 
lowing the models given, 
abbreviate abject alter 

abrupt abduct advocate 





WORD AKALYSI 


s 153 


accident 


accede 


accept 


admit 


accurate 


adapt 


antipathy 


adjure 


bicycle 


biped 


bisect 


cadence 


carnivorous 


catalogue 


century 


centigrade 


centrifugal 


circumscribe 


conduct 


confide 


conform 


conjunction 


competent 


commerce 


compel 


component 


confess 


congratulate 


cursory 


decline 


degradation 


dignity 


disdain 


dictation 


dislocate 


dissatisfy 


dispel 


educate 


episcopal 


equinimity 


evident 


expulsion 


faction 


fixture 


fraction 


fragile 


futile 


general 


gradual 


grateful 


impetus 


interpose 


jurisdiction 


liberate 


linguist 


linen 


literary 


logic 


loquacious 


ludicrous 


mandamus 


magnitude 


maintain 


marine 


matrimony 


mensuration 


merchandise 


monitor 


monotone 


monument 


notice 


numerous 


oculist 


opposite 


penal 


pendant 


pension 


petition 



154 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 



picture 


porter 


phonograph 


physiology 


proceed 


precede 


pronoun 


recede 


retrograde 


sacred 


secede 


sentiment 


solution 


submarine 


subscribe 


tangent 


tegument 


terminal 


transform 


unanimous 


utility 


valid 


valuable 


version 


vice-president 







Definition of Words 

The meaning of the words may be taught 
by means of objects, illustrations, use in sen- 
tences, use of the dictionary, their etymol- 
ogy, and the study of synonyms. 

By objects. The child may be taught the 
meaning of the word sphere by showing him 
a sphere. Many words, especially geometric 
and scientific terms, may be taught in a 
similar way. 

By illustrations. The meaning of many 
terms may become clear by the use of draw- 
ings and other illustrations. 

Crescent may be illustrated by the figure of 
the new moon, flutter by a motion of the 
hand. 



DEFINITION OF WORDS 155 

By use in sentences. A child learns the 
meaning of his first words by hearing them 
used by members of his family. In reading 
one often learns the correct use of a word 
which can not be determined from the defi- 
nition. 

By the dictionary. Pupils should be taught 
the use of the dictionary as early as the lat- 
ter part of the fourth year or beginning of 
the fifth. 

Most dictionaries give the definition of a 
word and then illustrate its use by means of 
a sentence ; thus the child can determine 
the meaning with no assistance from the 
teacher. 

By the study of etymology. Pupils should 
be taught at an early age the meaning of 
stems, prefixes and suffixes. There are two 
methods of teaching etymology, the analy- 
tic and the synthetic. 

The analytic begins with the whole word 
and divides it into its elements; then by 
learning each part the meaning of the whole 
word is determined. 

By the synthetic method the child is re- 
quired to learn a list of stems, prefixes and 



156 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

suffixes; then, by combining these, words 
are formed. 

It it said that the analytic method is the 
better for beginners because it is the more 
logical. A child comprehends a whole be- 
fore a part, and it proceeds from the known 
word to the unknown parts. 

By the study of synonyms. Synonyms are 
words that have similar meanings, but with 
slight differences. 

The English language has many synonyms 
because it is composed of words from several 
other languages. 

By the study of synonyms one is enabled 
to tell when a word may be substituted for 
another and when it may not be. By their 
use an unpleasant repetition of the same word 
is avoided and writing becomes accurate and 
smooth. 

Exercise in Synonyms 

Distinguish in meaning the following syn- 
onyms. 

Repentance, penitence ; invent, discover ; 
only, alone ; enough, sufficient ; avow, ac- 
knowledge, confess ; kill, murder, assassi- 



EXERCISE IN SYNONYMS 157 

nate ; design, purpose, intention ; hasten, 
hurry ; abundance, plenty ; industrious, la- 
borious, dilligent ; pride, vanity ; custom, 
habit ; force, strength ; truth, veracity ; re- 
mark, observe ; qualified, competent ; dis- 
trust, suspicion ; excuse, pardon, forgive ; 
grand, sublime, magnificent, gorgeous; splen- 
dor, grandeur; arduous, hard, difficult; disad- 
vantage, injury ; hopeless, desperate ; hope, 
expect, anticipate ; lonely, solitary; ask, 
beg, request, beseech, implore; admit, allow, 
excite, incite ; poison, venom ; modern, re- 
recent; curious, prying, inquisitive; defend, 
protect; persuade, convince ; sorrow, grief ; 
propose, purpose; mutual, reciprocal ; mid- 
dle, centre ; whole, entire, complete ; forti- 
tude, courage ; vocation, avocation ; lovely, 
pretty, beautiful ; amuse, divert, entertain ; 
aged, old, ancient, antique, obsolete; weight, 
heaviness; reputation, character; contagion, 
infection; teaching, instructing; pale, pallid, 
wan; abandon, forsake, desert; fright, alarm, 
terror; argue, debate; abdicate, resign; con- 
ceal, disguise; among, between; battle, fight; 
description, narration ; clear, distinct; lie, 
lay; sit, set; on, upon ; bring, fetch ; want 



158 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

need ; instruction, education ; healthy, 
healthful ; in, into; applause, praise; thank- 
ful, grateful; apprehend, comprehend; sick, 
ill ; exceed, excel ; polite, oblige ; stout, 
strong; learning, wisdom; price, cost, value, 
expense ; scholar, pupil, student, learner ; 
labor, work, employment, business ; pleas- 
ant, agreeable, pleasing, attractive; com- 
mand, direction, order, mandate; bold, dar- 
ing, courageous, fearless ; anxiety, solici- 
tude, worry, foreboding; falsehood, deceit, 
lie, untruth. 

Orthography or Spelling 

Orthography comes from orthos meaning 
right, and grapho meaning I write, the whole 
word meaning I write right. 

Orthography is the act of expressing words 
with the proper letters, according to stand- 
ard usage. Dr. Brooks defines orthography 
as ' ' the art of expressing the elements of a 
word". 

Its place in school work 

(a) Regular text-book instruction should 
be given in it. 



ITS PLACE IN SCHOOL WORK 159 

(6) Special attention should be given to it 
in all written work. 

(c) It should have as prominent a place 
in school as reading or any other subject. It 
is not necessary however, to give as much 
time to it as to most other subjects, as if the 
recitations are properly conducted, an equiv- 
alent amount of work can be accomplished 
in much less time. 

Its full value may be stated in one sen- 
tence. "There is no great credit in being a 
good speller, but there is great discredit in 
being a poor one." 

Correct spelling indicates a cultivated and 
scholarly mind. 

Spelling difficult 

We possess one of the most difficult if not 
the most difficult of languages to spell. This 
is due to the silent letters and different let- 
ters to represent the same sound. One au- 
thority states that scissors can be spelled in 
6000 different ways. 

This unsystematic spelling is the result of 
the formation of our language, the English 
language being derived from many sources. 



160 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

The introduction of printing helped to 
make spelling constant. 

It is said that anyone may learn to spell 
if he puts forth effort in the right direction. 
Each new word should be noted carefully, 
then it should be written and pronounced 
several times. 

Spelling should receive careful attention 
in the early years of sehool, for if neglected 
at that time, one is likely never to learn to 
spell. 

Material 

1. We may obtain words, sentences, etc., 
for use in the spelling class from the various 
lessons on reading, geography, language, etc. 

2. Pupils may spell the names of objects 
in the schoolroon, or about the house, or on 
the farm. 

3. Words may be taken from the news- 
paper. 

4. A regular spelling book may be used. 

Advantages of a Spelling Book 

1. It lightens the work of the teacher; she 
does not need to copy the words on the 



ADVANTAGES OF A SPELLING BOOK 161 

l)oard or take time to arrange the lists of 
words. 

2. Pupils can study the lesson at any 
time. They do not need to wait until the 
teacher places it upon the board. 

3. It is easier to study words from a 
.speller than from some other book. 

4. If the book gives only the words com- 
monly misspelled, the attention of the pupils 
is concentrated in what they need to study 
jnost. 

Disadvantages of a Spelling Book 

1. The words may not be arranged pro- 
perly. In some books there are lists of 
'words having the same ending or beginning, 
-or some other similarity, and after the pupils 
know the first word the others require little 
attention in that lesson. The pupil knows 
in what respect the words are alike, and he 
requires no thought in spelling them, they 
make no impression on his mind, and he is 
likely to misspell any of them the next time 
it appears alone in his written lesson. 

2. Often not all the words in a particular 
lesson are such as the teacher wishes to give 



162 BEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

that day, and it would be about as much 
work to select the words from various lessons 
of the speller as from any other book. 

Our aim in teaching spelling should be to 
teach pupils to spell correctly the words in 
common use, and only such technical and 
and geographical names should be spelled a& 
are in common use. 

Best ways of teaching Spelling 

(a) Through the eye, seeing the word. 

(b) Through the ear, hearing the word. 

(c) Through the muscular movement,, 
writing the word. 

Suggestions for Recitation 

1. The teacher should pronounce the word 
but once. Vary from this only when there 
is unavoidable noise. 

2. Do not mispronounce a word in order 
that pupils may spell it, as sep a rate. 

3. In oral spelling when a word is missed 
do not pronounce it again in asking the next 
to spell it. 

4. Allow only one trial in spelling a word. 
All after that is guess work. 

5 Require pupils to pronounce each word 



SUGGESTIONS FOR RECITATION 163 

before and after spelling it. This enables the 
teacher to determine if the word is under- 
stood and gives the pupil drill in pronuncia- 
tion. 

6. It is often of advantage to require pu- 
pils to spell and pronounce each syllable; as, 
sep (sep) a (a) rate (rate). 

7. Do not pronounce the words in the or- 
der in which they were studied, unless it be 
a dictation exercise. 

8. Require pupils to name everything 
necessary to the correct writing of the word; 
as, capital letter, apostrophe, hyphen, etc. 

Oral Spelling 

Oral spelling is naming aloud the letters 
of a word in the order in which they occur. 

The pupil taught orally learns to spell 
through the sense of hearing, the same as 
one learns a poem by hearing it repeated. 
Usually however, the pupils study the 
words from the book or the blackboard and 
then spell aloud in class. In such cases the 
order of the letters is fixed upon the mind 
through the sense of sight as well as of hear- 
ing. Among its advantages are : 



164 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

1. It teaches pronunciation. 

2. It aids in teaching correct syllabica- 
tion. 

3. It affords several interesting methods of 
conducting a recitation. 

4. It may save time. 
Its disadvantages are: 

1. Pupils when taught to spell orally may 
not spell correctly when they write. 

2. We need to know how to write words 
but are rarely called to spell them orally 
after leaving school. 

3. Each pupil cannot spell at one recita- 
tion as many words as by the written 
method. 

Written Spelling 

Written spelling is writing the letters of a 
word in the order in which they occur in the 
word. 

The letters are fixed in mind through the 
sense of sight, and the hand is assisted in 
producing them through the training of the 
muscles (muscular movement). 

Its advantages are: 

1. Impressions are made upon the mind 



"WRITTEN SPELLING 165 

more deeply through the sense of sight than 
through the oral method. 

2. It tends to make pupils spell more ac- 
curately in all written work than the oral 
method. 

3. Each pupil can spell all the words in 
the lesson during one recitation. 

4. Pupils are enabled to keep a list of the 
misspelled words and correct them. 

5. All pupils are occupied during the en- 
tire recitation. 

Its disadvantages are: 

1. It does not tend to teach syllabication. 

2. It takes more time than the oral 
method. 

Oral and written methods combined 

The words may first be spelled orally and 
then written, or written and then spelled or- 
ally. This method would have the advan- 
tage of the other two. The chief disadvan- 
tage would be that it takes too much time. 

General Suggestions 

The first spelling book is the school 
reader. The teacher should select words 



166 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

and sentences from this for the spelling 
work. 

Pupils in the primary grades are first 
taught spelling by writing words. As soon 
as possible these should be used in sentences 
and most of the spelling is done in connec- 
tion with the reading lesson. The pupils 
should be taught to punctuate correctly 
each sentence from the very first. 

Pupils should at first copy sentences from 
their readers. This may form busy work 
for the pupil at his seat. The teacher must 
see that all work is correctly and neatly 
done. No careless work should be accepted. 

After the pupils show some skill in copy- 
ing sentences from the readers, the teacher 
may give sentences of her own for them to 
copy, or she may give a word and require 
the pupils to write it in a sentence. 

As the pupils grow older the teacher may 
place sentences upon the board, have the 
pupils study and copy them at their seats, 
and then in recitation use them for dictation 
exercises. The teacher may also give a list 
of words and require pupils to use them in 
sentences. 



GENERAL SUGGESTION'S 167 

Introduce a little oral spelling during the 
first year or two. The older pupils may be 
given oral spelling more frequently. 

With the intermediate pupils the teacher 
may prepare a list of words if no spelling 
book is used, and place them upon the 
board. These words may be taken from the 
geography, reading, language, etc., and 
should be thoroughly studied by the pupils. 
They may be required to write the words at 
their desks during the study period, no mat- 
ter what method is used in conducting the 
recitation. They may sometimes be required 
to use these words in sentences. The teach- 
er should see that the meaning of all words 
is known by the pupils. 

When the lesson is assigned the teacher 
should call the pupils' attention to any words 
that have a difficult or peculiar spelling, 
and offer any suggestions that will aid the 
pupils in remembering the words. 

The older pupils should study the spell- 
ing in much the same way as the intermedi- 
ate pupils. 



168 BEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

Suggestions in Oral Spelling 

Position. The pupils may sit or stand as 
desired by the teacher. If they are seated 
they should be as near each other as possible 
as it is easier to hold their attention and it is 
only the attention of those in the spelling 
class that is desired. They should sit erect 
with their hands clasped and resting upon 
the desk or in their laps, and their feet 
squarely upon the floor. If they are stand- 
ing each should take an erect position and 
the class form a straight or slightly curved 
line. 

Pronouncing of words. If there is to be 
place- taking the teacher must pronounce the 
words to the pupils in order from the head 
of the class to the foot. She should not, 
however, pronounce them in the order of the 
book. The teacher should usually pronounce 
the word but once, and allow pupils but one 
trial. 

Errors. When the word is missed the 
teacher passes it to the next. The teacher, 
to vary the method, may sometimes pass the 
word to the next pupil, even if it is correct, 
the pupil to tell whether it is right or wrong. 



SUGGESTIONS IN ORAL SPELLING 169 

If wrong, he spells it, if right he may sim- 
ply say right or spell it again. The teacher 
may again vary the method by pronouncing 
a word and if it is mispelled, pronounce 
another, paying no attention to the mispelled 
word. The pupil should, of course, spell 
the missed word instead of the one last pro- 
nounced. The pupil who corrects the error 
takes the place of the one who first missed 
the word. 

Expedients. Sometimes the teacher may 
allow pupils to spell a word beginning with 
the last letter of the preceding word ; as, 
play, year, raining, giving, etc. This re- 
quires quick thought on the part of the pu- 
pil. One difficulty with this is that the 
words spelled may be too simple to be of any 
benefit to the pupil unless the teacher tells 
them at first the number of syllables re- 
quired. 

The above methods break up the monot- 
ony of the recitation and hold the attention 
of the class. 

The teacher may allow the pupils to spell 
down once in a while. Some Friday after- 
noon could be devoted to this and the par- 



170 READING IK TRAINING CLASSES 

ents invited. This tends to create an inter- 
est in the school work, particularly the spell- 
ing. 

Phonetic spelling. Lists of words should 
sometimes be given pupils to spell by sound 
only. This can be introduced in the third 
or fourth year. 

When this work is firsf taken up the words 
should be written upon the board and 
marked plainly by the teacher. As pupils 
advance the list of words should be given 
unmarked and the pupils required to find 
the proper marking and then spell them by 
sound. 

Suggestions in Written Spelling 

Blackboard method. The class pass to the 
blackboard and divide it into spaces by 
drawing vertical lines. Numbe/these spaces 
one and two and let each pupil write his 
name at the top of the space he is to use. 
The teacher pronounces two words in suc- 
cession. Number one writes the first word 
pronounced and number two the second. 
Continue this until all the words in the les- 
son have been written; then one of thenum- 



SUGGESTIONS IN" WRITTEN SPELLING 171 

ber ones may spell a word and a number 
two another, and so on until all are spelled. 

All misspelled words should be marked 
with an x or a line drawn through them. 
The pupils may exchange places and correct 
each other's work if desired. The correct 
form of each misspelled word should be writ- 
ten once or twice by the pupil. The teach- 
er and pupils should keep a list of the mis- 
spelled words and at the end of the week 
these may be given as a test lesson. 

The class may be divided into more than 
two sections. 

This method is of advantage to the teacher 
as all work is before her, and when the class 
is divided there is little chance of copying. 
In some schools there is not sufficient black- 
board room to allow of this method. 

Blank books. By this method the words 
are written in blank books instead of on the 
blackboard. These books may be made by 
the pupils by cutting legal cap or fools cap 
paper into the proper size, or books or pads 
may be purchased for this purpose. All 
work should be done neatly with pen and 
ink. 



172 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

The teacher or one of the pupils may spell 
the words and each child may correct his 
own errors, or the books may be exchanged 
and corrected by others. Pupils should be 
taught to grade the papers. 

When the books are exchanged better 
work is likely to result, as all desire to have 
their books equally neat and accurate. One 
says that the exchange of books creates an 
idea of distrust, but there is little danger of 
this feeling in a properly conducted school. 

All misspelled words should be written 
correctly at the close of each lesson, in a 
space provided for this purpose and these 
should be corrected as in the blackboard 
method. 

The teacher should look over the books 
herself, if not every day at least as often as 
once or twice a week, as pupils are likely to 
make mistakes in marking words. 

The teacher or pupil who spells the word 
should follow carefully the method of spell- 
ing orally given under " Directions to 
Teachers' ' . 



DICTATION 173 

Dictation 

Words should often be written in sen- 
tences. The teacher may write the sen- 
tences upon the board and allow the pupils 
to study them, or for drill, she may dictate 
sentences they have not studied. Sometimes 
she may give words and have pupils write 
sentences using these words. 

In the sentences dictated the teacher 
should use various marks of punctuation, 
possessive forms, contractions, quotations, 
invitations, acceptances, regrets, and para- 
graphs from books and papers. 

The pupils in all cases should punctuate 
correctly. 

Examples of a dictation exercise 

1. John said, "Where are you going?" 

2. "I'll tell you what I saw,''' said John, 
"when I come from school to-night." 

3. "Good evening, Richard, step right 
in." 

4. "Mary, I didn't tell you to go." 

5. "Harry," said the teacher, "where did 
you find that book?' ' 

6. "0, wait till it's done," said Tom. 



174 READING IN" TEAINING CLASSES 

7. "I can't, I want to see it," said Bess. 

8. "If you won't tell mamma, I'll go for 
the book." 

The teaaher may place the above exercise 
on the board and allow the pupils to study 
it. She should call attention to the various 
marks of punctuation etc. Reasons should 
be given for the marks. 

Erase the work and dictate each sentence. 
The pupils should write them exactly as 
they were upon the board, using capitals, 
punctuation marks, etc. 

Rules for spelling 

There are but few rules for spelling that 
are not without exceptions. Only three can 
be given that are of practical value. 

1. Monosyllables and words accented on 
the last syllable, ending with a single con- 
sonant, preceded by a single vowel, double 
the final consonant before adding a suffix 
beginning with a vowel, as, rebel, rebellion. 

2. Words ending in y preceded by a con- 
sonant, change the y to i before adding a 
suffix beginning with a vowel; as, pony, 
ponies. 



RULES FOR SPELLING 175 

3. Final e is usually omitted in adding a 
suffix beginning with a vowel; as, advise, 
advising. 

Words often misspelled 

When, their, there, which, until, many, 
very, any, neither, hoping, weather, 
whether. 

Penmanship 

The usefullness of this subject need not be 
mentioned. In all schools, however poor 
their condition may be, it should receive 
careful attention. The aims in teaching 
penmanship are to secure legibility, neat- 
ness, rapidity and beauty. 

It is far more necessary that one write 
plainly, neatly and rapidly, than that he 
write artistically. One should first write 
legibly and neatly, then aim to write rap- 
idly. A business man desires rapidity, but 
must have neatness and legibility. Beauty 
of writing is of secondary importance. 
There is a mistaken idea that the promis- 
cuous use of flourishes produces a pleasing 
effect. These may entirely destroy the 
beauty of plain but artistic writing. 



176 BEADING IN TKAINING CLASSES 

Vertical penmanship 

There are two systems of penmanship, the 
vertical and the slant. 
^ The advocates of the vertical claim: 

1. It is more legible because it is more 
nearly like the Roman letters found in all 
books. 

2. It is easier to teach and learn. The 
position required is a natural one, and both 
teacher and pupil are saved trouble of 
training the muscles to take unnatural posi- 
tions and the penmanship period becomes a 
pleasure to both. 

[. 3. It is more beautiful than the slant as all 
unnecessary flourishes are avoided. 

4. It is more rapid, as a vertical line is 
shorter than a slant line of the same height, 
therefore space and time are economized. 

5. It is conducive to the health of the 
child, as the body is in a natural, upright 
position and both eyes are at equal distance 
from the paper. 

Those opposed to this system claim: 

1. It produces slow writers, and therefore 
is not suitable for business purposes. 

2. It has never been adopted in commer- 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP 17$ 

cial schools or used to any extent in busi- 
ness houses ; hence a pupil taught to write 
this way cannot get a position. 

3. It is no more conducive to health than 
the slant if the proper position be taken in 
writing the slant. 

4. It is not beautiful. It has too much 
the appearance of a school boy hand. 

There was a period ten years ago, as there 
was a hundred years ago, when there was a 
temporary adoption of vertical penmanship, 
but it is now very little used. 

Position of the Body 

Whatever system is used the pupil should 
take the front position. 

The child sits directly in front facing the 
desk; both feet squarely upon the floor, the 
left a little in advance of the right; both 
arms rest upon the desk obliquely, forming 
right angles with each other. The left arm 
should not be too far upon the desk, the el- 
bow may be slightly off the table. The left 
hand is used to steady the paper. The 
weight of the right arm should be borne by 



178 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

the muscles of the forearm and the nails of 
the little and ring ringers. 

The side position that is sometimes taken 
in slant writing tends to raise one shoulder 
higher than the other. 

Position of Paper 

In slant writing and the front position 
the paper is placed at an angle with the 
body, the left edge at an angle of about 35° 
with the front edge of the desk. If the side 
position be taken the paper is parallel to the 
front edge of the desk as in vertical writing. 

Holding of the Pen 

The pen should be held lightly by the 
first and second fingers and the thumb. 
The end of the first finger should be at least 
an inch from the point of the pen. If placed 
too near, a cramped position of the fingers 
usually results. 

The thumb should be slightly bent and 
placed on the holder opposite the first joint 
of the first finger. The penholder should 
cross the first finger near the knuckles, some 
say half way between the knuckles and sec- 
ond joint, and the second finger at the root 



HOLDING OF THE PEN 179 

of the nail. It should point between the 
shoulder and the elbow. 

The hand should rest upon the nails of the 
little and ring fingers; the wrist should not 
touch the paper at all. 

Care should be taken that the pen be held 
so loosely that by taking hold of the top of 
the penholder it can be pulled up and down 
easily. If it is held too firmly the muscles 
become tired. 

This position may be secured by raising 
the right arm from the shoulder and letting 
it fall at the side with the muscles of the 
hand and arm relaxed. If the hand be 
raised to the paper without changing the 
position of the fingers it will be in the cor- 
rect position for writing. 

Pupils may be taught to take the proper 
position by holding in their hand when writ- 
ing a small ball of paper or a handkerchief. 

Movements 

There are three movements commonly 
considered ; the arm, the forearm and the 
finger movement. 

In the arm movement the whole arm is 



180 BEADING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

used ; in the forearm movement only the 
muscles of the forearm are used ; in the fin- 
ger movement the first and middle fingers 
and the thumb are used. 

An authority says that the forearm move- 
ment is the only one that should be allowed 
in writing. It seems best however, to use 
both the forearm and fingers, the whole arm 
but rarely. 

Material 

The material used in the primary grades 
should be long lead pencils, paper, and per- 
haps a copybook. No short pencils should 
be allowed, as incorrect positions will result. 

No ink should be used for the first two 
years at least, as pupils at this age cannot 
control a pen as easily as a pencil and are 
liable to get the ink upon their clothing and 
disfigure books. 

The elder pupils should use pen and ink. 

Copy-books 

It is possible to teach penmanship with- 
out copybooks. The pupils may take fools- 
cap paper and fold it to the proper size for 
use in penmanship. If copybooks are used 



COPYBOOKS 181 

the pupils should be supplied with practice 
paper and never write in the book until they 
have first practised various movements and 
the copy upon this paper. Copybooks 
lighten the work for the teacher as she does 
not need to write copies for the pupils, and 
they also furnish accurate forms for the pu- 
pils to follow. When the teachers write the 
copies the children are obliged to follow 
varying forms from year to year, as no two 
teachers' write alike. 

Writing Charts 

Usually there is a writing chart with each 
system of penmanship. These are valuable, 
as they furnish accurately formed letters for 
class use, and save the teacher the trouble of 
placing correct forms upon the board, which 
she is often incapable of doing unless much 
time is spent in practice. 

Copies 

If there be no copybooks in the school, 
the teacher can prepare copies upon slips of 
paper before the class period. Each pupil 
should be given a slip, all in the same class 
having like copies. This will save the 



182 READING IK TRAINING CLASSES 

teacher much time during the period, pro- 
duce uniformity in the writing, and enable 
the teacher to properly grade the work. 

Classification of Letters 

Those letters which are similar in lines, 
curves and spaces should be classed together. 

The following classification is suggested: 
i u w — n m x v — o a c e — r s — t d p q — 1 b 
h k f— j y g z. A E D C— P B R— T F— 
H K G L S— N M— I J— W X Z Q— V U Y. 

It should be noticed that some letters are 
one space in height and others more than 
one. 

Some copybooks give the spacing of the 
letters. These vary from two to five. In 
whatever systemis used the spaces occupied 
by the letters should be noticed, otherwise 
the letters will be out of proportion. 

Exercises 

Each lesson should be preceded by one or 



EXERCISES 183 

more exercises to prepare the muscles for the 



work. The pupils should try the exercises 
first with a dry pen. When an exercise is 
given for one or more divisions of the school, 
the teacher should count for the pupils. For 
examples see first two on following page. 
Some exercises require a different count 




from others. The teacher can usually deter- 
mine the number required. 

An exercise should be arranged for each 



letter, and this should always be" practised 
before the [letter is written alone. For in- 
stance if 'we are to teach a give some such 



184 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 







EXEECISES 185 

exercise at first as the third on the oppo- 
site page. 

Then the fourth. 

The teachers manual that is issued with 
some systems of penmanship will give all 
necessary information in regard to exercises. 

With a little thought a teacher can pre- 
pare suitable exercises. 

The general exercises first and second on 
the opposite page are suggested to secure a 
free forearm movement. 

Time 

There should be a certain time devoted to 
penmanship and pupils should not be 
allowed to use the copybooks at other 
times. 

In some schools it is impossible to have 
penmanship every day. In such cases it 
may be alternated with drawing or some 
other subject. 

It is a good plan to have the copybooks 
and practice paper kept at the teacher's desk; 
the practice paper may be placed in the 
book. If they are kept in the pupils' desks 
they are likely to become soiled and torn, 



186 READING IN TRAINING CLASSES 

and there is always a temptation to use 
them when not desired. 

Writing in the First Grade 

The pupil's first attempt made in writing 
may be ]bj tracing a letter made by the 
teacher. Some systems advocate this plan. 
The letter should be large at first. The 
muscles of young children are not suffi- 
ciently under their control so that they can 
make small letters. If they attempt to do 
so the movement becomes cramped and they 
are likely to hold the pencil too firmly. 

Specimens 

Th6 teacher should take specimens of the 
pupil's writing from time to time and com- 
pare them. She can thus see the progress 
made. 

Dictation 

Sometimes the teacher may dictate an ex- 
ercise in penmanship. These may consist 
of rules of health, maxims, modes of busi- 
ness letters, checks, receipts, etc. 

See dictation exercises under spelling. 



CRITICISMS J 87 

Criticisms 

During the writing period the teacher 
should move about the room and correct all 
errors. Often she may correct the mistake 
of several by writing on the board a letter 
incorrectly as she finds it and comparing it 
with the correct form which she may make 
or which she shows them from the chart if 
there be one in the school. She may some- 
times exaggerate the mistake to make it 
more obvious. 

We can not expect all the pupils to 
write alike nor do we wish them to do so; 
we should not therefore be so critical as to 
destroy the individuality of the pupil's writ- 
ing. 



JAN 2 190? 



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